I got this great book called UNPUZZLING YOUR PAST: A BASIC GUIDE TO GENEALOGY Third Edition by Emily Anne Croom. It's a $15.00 book that most bookstore should carry. I found Chapter 5 to be quite enlightening, so I thought I would share it with everyone. ---------- WHAT'S IN A NAME? Names present special challenges to the genealogist. For example, your family name may be spelled several different ways in public documents. The census taker recorded what he heard, or thought he heard. The copier wrote down what he thought he read. A variety of spellings is often found for the same name and the same family: Metcalf-Metcalfe-Midcalf-Midkiff-Medcalf Robinson-Robertson-Robberson-Robison Allen-Alan-Allyn-Allan-Alline-Alin Neale-Neil-Neill-Neal-Neele In FAMILY NAMES HOW OUR SURNAMES CAME TO AMERICA (New York; Macmillan, 1982, p.234), J. N. Hook reports 17 different spellings of Robertson and 21 varieties of Sullivan in the 1790 census. Surnames may change over the years. A French immigrant named Pierre de la Chapelle may find his name Americanized to Peter Chapel. The German immigrant Johann Peter Muth became Peter Mood. Zimmerman may be translated to Carpenter; the French Le Blanc may become White. Such changes can reflect the way the family pronounced their name or the attempt of a clerk to approximate what he heard and make it managable for the English-speaking community. In this way, an Irishman named Sean Maurice could become John Morris; a Welshman named ap Howell might become Powell; and the German Koster has become altered to Custer. Surnames, of course, do become given names. There are many examples, such as Allen, Keith, Glenn, Clyde, Davis, Lloyd, Elliott, Dudley, and Newton. Combining surnames has given some nineteenth-century Southerners really interesting names: Green Bird, Bright Bird, Green Cash, Ransom Cash, Green Hill, Green Moss, Wiley Crook, and Valentine Cash. Given names (Christian or first names) may be spelled in varieties of ways and Americanized just as surnames are. However, given names present the additional challenge of nicknames and abbreviations. Female nicknames, by which the individuals were known to their contemporaries, are often found in place of "real" names in documents. Many good dictionaries can help you determine the given name from a nickname. Here are some common first names with their usual nicknames: Mary Mamie, Molly, Mollie, May, Maisie, Polly, Minnie, Moll Margaret Maggie, Peg, Peggy, Meg, Midge, Madge, Daisy, Maisie, Meta, Greta Martha Marty, Martie, Mattie, Patty, Patsy Elizabeth Beth, Eliza, Liz, Liza, Lizzie, Lisa, Lise, Elsie, Betty, Betsy, Bitsy, Bess, Bessie, Libby Eleanor Ella, Ellie, Nell, Nellie, Nelly, Nora Sarah Sally, Sal, Sadie Frances Fran, Frankie, Fannie Ann(e) Annie, Nan, Nannie, Nina, Nancy Katherine Kathy, Kate, Katie, Kat, Katy, Kay, Kitty, Kit Henry Hank, Harry, Hal, Hen Richard Dick, Rick, Ricky, Rich, Richy Robert Rob, Bob, Robby, Bobby, Dobbin, Robin, Robbie John Johnny, Johnnie, Jack, Jackie, Jock James Jamie, Jim, Jimmy, Jem Theodore/Theodorick Ted, Tad, Teddy, Theo, The, Dode, Dory Sometimes records give us nickanames of previous centuries which are less common today: Sukie, Suchy Susan Tillie Matilda, Mathilda Effie, Effy Euphemia Tempy Temperance Millie Amelia, Mildred, Millicent Lettie Letitia Hettie Esther, Henrietta, Hester Ollie Olive, Olivia Winnie Winnefred Hallie probably Henrietta or Harriet Of course, nicknames were, and are, used as complete given names. Lucy is often a "real name" instead of a nickname for Lucretia, Lucia, Lucille, or Lucinda. Stella is both a given name and a nickname for Costella and Estelle, just as Larry is often a given name rather than a shortened form of Lawrence today. Some nicknames can substitute for more than one given name: Patty Patricia, Patience, Martha, Matilda Lina, Lena Eveline, Emeline, Carolina, Angelina, Selina, Selena, Helena, Paulina, Magdalena, and others Bell(e) Arabella, Anabelle, Isabel, Rosabel Nora Honora, Honoria, Leonora, Eleanor Dora Theodora, Eudora, Dorothy Ed(die) Edgar, Edmund, Edward, Edwin, Edwina Nell Ellen, Helen, Eleanor Frankie Frances, Francis, Franklin, Francine Delia Cordelia, Adelia, Ledilia, Adele Sam(my) Samuel, Samson, Samantha Jenny Jane, Virginia, Janet, Jeannette (Jennet), Jennifer Allie Alice, Aline, Alene, Aletha Cindy Lucinda, Cynthia In documents copied by hand, male names are often abbreviated. These are common examples: Daniel Dan (with a tiny "l" up and after it) Samuel Sam (with a tiny "l" up and after it) Jonathan Jno Richard Rich (with a tiny "d" up and after it) Thomas Thos James Jas Nathaniel Nat (with a tiny "l" up and after it) Christopher X (with a tiny "r" up and after it) Alexander Alex (with a tiny "r" up and after it) Joseph Jos Naming practices vary from place to place and century to century, but certain consistencies have existed for nearly four centuries in the area we now call the United States. For example, children were, and still are, often named for grandparents and other relatives. Sometimes a middle or given name is a clue to the mother's maiden name or to a grandparent's name. For example, Benjamin Allen Phillips (1801) was named for his grandfather Benjamin Allen. Emily Cooper (1882) was named for her father's deceased first wife, Emily Blalock Cooper. Emily Cooper Blalock (1874) was named for the same deceased lady, is this case, her father's sister. On the other hand, Pitser Miller Blalock (1848) was named for a neighbor, not thought to be a relative. In IN SEARCH FOR YOUR BRITISH AND IRISH ROOTS (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Company, 1991 reprint, p. 47), genealogist Angus Baxter suggested a pattern to naming practices of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, especially in England and Wales, which may give some clues for studying families of the American colonies and the United States. Eldest son---------------often named for the father's father Second son---------------for the mother's father Third son----------------for the father Fourth son---------------for the father's eldest brother Eldest daughter----------for the mother's mother Second daughter----------for the father's mother Third daughter-----------for the mother Fourth daughter----------for the mother's eldest sister In the United States, this pattern may be considered a clue but certainly not a rule. Some families did name eldest sons for paternal grandfathers, but the naming of children for relatives generally followed no particular pattern or order. Families also named eldest sons for relatives on both sides of the family or for no one in particular. Each child in these examples was an eldest son. Hunter Orgain Metcalfe (1887) was given his maternal grandmother's maiden name, Orgain. Samuel Black Brelsford (1829) was named for his maternal grandfather, Samuel Black. Edward Philpot Blalock (1837) was named after his father's foster brother, Edward Philpot. Thomas Blalock King (1972) was given one name from each grandfather. Of course, a daughter was, and still is, sometimes given a feminine form of her father's name: Josephine/Joseph, Georgianna/George, Pauline/Paul, Philippa/Philip, Willie/William, Jessie/Jesse, Charlotte/Charles, and even Drusilla/Drew. Almanzon Huston even named one of his daughters Almazona. Every culture and era seems to have names whose origins are obscure. They may be nicknames, "made-up" names, combinations of other names, names of characters in literature, or place names. Parents may have simply liked the sound of a name or wanted to choose something different. When we genealogists find these names in records, sometimes they are a result of phonetic spelling. Some may be corruptions of other names or attempts to keep names in a family within a particular pattern: names in alphabetical order , or names beginning with the same initials. These are some of the numerous such names found in this country from 1750 to the present: Benoba, Bivy, Callie, Devra, Dicy, Dovie, Floice, Fena, Hattie, Jincey, Kitcey, Ora, Olan, Olean, Ottie, Ozora, Parilee, Parizade, Perlissa, Peariby (Pheribah, Pheriby, Fereby), Rebia, and Sinah. In the United States, each era seems to have had its favorite names, in addition to the standard ones which have been used for centuries. The "period" names may be related to the attitudes, events, or personalities of the generation, even in subtle ways; or they may be simply "fads" which give way to new patterns after several decades. Girls, and sometimes boys, of the latter seventeenth century and the eighteenth century, especially among New England Puritans, were named for virtues: Patience, Piety, Prudence, Amity, Obedience, Rejoice, Reason, Temperance, Truth, Grace, Charity, Civility, Mercy, Faith, Honour, Hope or Hopeful, Constant or Constance, and Pleasant. Another group of names perhaps suggested experiences of the parents: Desire, Sorrow, Mourning, Comfort, Anguish, and Seaborn. Some Southern men had the given names of Merit and Sterling, which could come from surnames as well as from valued traits. In the late seventeenth century, Germans poured into Pennsylvania, bringing with them their custom of giving children two names. Some families even kept the first name the same for all the sons, for example, and varied only the middle name: Johann Peter, Johann Friedrich, Johann Sebastian, and Johann Georg. As these families and their descendants moved throughout the colonies, other ethic groups picked up the double-naming custom. By the mid-nineteenth century, the practice was widespread. As we have seen, the idea allowed parents to name children after grandparents and to perpetuate a surname from previous generations at the same time. Patty Field Allen, Hiram Hawkins Brelsford, Elliott Gen Coleman, George Rogers Clark, and many others carried surnames as their middle names and give genealogists at least a clue to another set of roots. Especially between 1650 and 1860, many children received Biblical names, some of which, of course, are "standard" names which have been favorites for centuries. Common female names include Sarah, Elizabeth, Rebecca, Susanna, Rachel, Martha, Mary, Priscilla, Ruth, Hannah (Anna, Anne), and Judith. Less well-known Biblical names were also used: Jerusha, Keturah, Dorcas, Ascenath, Jemina, Zilpah, Phebe (Phoebe), and Orpah. Favorite male names from the Old Testament included Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Benjamin, Levi, Jesse, David, Samuel, Daniel, Joshua, Moses, Elijah, Seth, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. New Testament names, of course, included Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Simon, Peter, James, Thomas, and Rufus. United States children were, and are, also named in honor of famous Americans or prominent local personalities. In the early years of the Republic, some families showed their patriotic feelins by naming daughters and sons Liberty, Justice, or America. Other families, caught up in the westward movement, named daughters for their new or former states: Virginia, Carolina, Tennessee, Missouri, Louisiana, and Georgia. These given names of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were not titles but actual first names: Major Croom, Admiral Croom, Squire Blalock, Pharoah Lee, Doctor Godwin, Lieutenant Campbell, and Patsy Empress Jones. From the mid-eighteenth century to about the mid-nineteenth century, Europe, and therefore the United States, experienced a revival of classical architecture, language, and cultural influences, which seem to have carried over into naming practices. Of course, Latin and Greek names and derivatives used during the classical revival period. Some are still used today and are considered quite usual. Others are used for boys and girls alike: Aurelius, Artemis, Artemesia, Caesar, Cassius, Cassia, Claudia, Clementine, Chloe, Fortunatus, Florian, Fabius, Fabian, Fabia, Guglielmo, Guglielmus, Horatio, Honoria, Hortense, Julius, Junius, Justin, Latinus, Lydia, Lucian, Lucius, Lucia, Marcellus, Marcus, Nonna, Ophelia, Octavius, Octavia, Pericles, Pompey, Primus, Parmenius, Phyllis, Philena, Portia, Penelope, Parmelia, Philadelphia, Quentin, Rhoda, Sylvanus, Sylvia, Stephanie, Sophia, Sibyl, Sophronica, Theophilus, Theodocia, Tessa, Urban(us), Valentine, Virginious, Virgil, Xene, Zeta, Zenobia, Zephyr. Many nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century daughters, especially in the South, received the names of flowers and gems: Violet, Pansy, Rose, Daisy, Lily, Ruby, Jewel, Pearl, and Opal. Interesting combinations have come from these names: Lillie White, Rosey Brown, and Pansy Violet Flower. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, more children than in recent or later generations seemed to be named Edna, Elvira, Ethel, Gladys, Gertrude, Gussie, Lillian, Lula, Malvina, Maude, Mildred, Nora, Thelma, Verna, Albert, Alvin, Claude, Elmer, Ernest, Grover, Herbert, Marvin, Maurice, Maynard, and Oscar. Likewise, the mid-twentieth century had a set of popular names that were not so common in earlier or later years: Barbara, Carol, Carolyn, Diane, Gay(e), Janet, Jill, Joan, Joyce, Karen, Linda, Marilyn, Sharon, Shirley, Carl, Dean, Dennis, Jerry, Kenneth, Larry, Ron(ny), and Terry. Finding popularity from the 1970s forward have been names which have no ethnic, historical, or genealogical relationship to the family using them. Some are derived from surnames, and some are used for both boys and girls: Allison, Ashley, Barrett, Brian, Brittany, Cody, Dara, Darin, Derek, Eric, Erin, Hailey, Heather, Jason, Jennifer, Jordan, Justin, Kendall, Kendra, Kevin, Kimberley, Kristen, Kyle, Lauren, Lindsey, Megan, Meredith, Michelle, Nicole, Nicholas, Paige, Ryan, Scott, Shawn/Sean, Stacy, Taylor, Tiffany, Travis, Trevor, Trey, Tyler, and Whitney. In addition, the latter twentieth century has seen a renaissance of such Biblical names as Adam, Benjamin, Daniel, Jeremy, Matthew, Michael, and Zachary. Through all these eras, certain "standard" names have continued in popularity: Anne, Catherine, David, Elizabeth, Emily, George, James, John, Margaret, Mary, Richard, Robert, Sarah, Susan, Thomas, and William. Names can present special problems to the genealogist when several people of the same name appear in the same location at the same time. Their relationship, if any exists, cannot be assumed. Eighteenth century records bearing the name Daniel Coleman, James Shaw or William Black can baffle the researcher quickly. It is difficult to separate these men to determine just how many Daniels, Jameses, or Williams there were, and which records belonged to which man. The genealogist must be careful. We cannot assume the man is automatically our ancestor because the name is the same. Estate names or other descriptive appellations sometimes helps to identify men in the records. Peter Bland "of Jordan's Point" would distinquish this Peter from others. One James Turley drew and eye after his name to separate himself from other James Turleys in the area. He is referred to now, as perhaps he was then, as James One Eye. Perhaps this designation tells us something of his physical appearance. Sometimes men added "Jr." or "Sr." after their names to distinguish themselves from their father or son or other relative of the same name. For example, three men named Isaac Croom lived in Madison County, Tennessee, during the mid-nineteenth century. The senior Isaac was the uncle of the other two. Of these nephews, one carried his middle initial, N., and the other occasionally added "Jr." to his name, Isaac, Jr., was separating himself from his uncle Isaac rather than his father, who was Charles. Discrepancies and problems related to names and relationships cannot always be solved. However, you can form educated guesses. Use primary (firsthand) sources as often as possible and evaluate them thoroughly. Gather as much information as possible. Sort it and use only the most reliable. Support your guesses with facts. ---------- Hopefully this will help someone else as much as it has helped me. Happy Holidays! Cindy China Spring, TX [email protected]