Hi, List, You're right: the responses were very interesting and suggestive. If I can remember correctly, here's a summary: 1) My ancestor may have left Wisconsin under a cloud and avoided the census for fear of detection. Suggestion: check legal records in Wisconsin. 2) My ancestor may have lived in Kansas, since the border is so close to Pawnee and Gage Counties. I will definitely follow up on this one. 3) My volunteer may have been using the Soundex, which included only households with children under 10. For me, this would not have explained why my ancestor was not found in either the 1870 or 1880 census records, because in 1870, he had a 4-year-old. 4) There could have been discrepancies in spelling. This, again, doesn't help me much, since there were no L. Carpenters at all in any census. 5) The volunteer could have overlooked something. Many suggested that there's no substitute for looking at the records oneself. I think those are the main ones. Again, my thanks to all who replied. This list is the absolute best. Barbara