Continuing Lewis's description of county Laois from c. 1837 A great part of the county particularly the mountainous districts to the north west was once covered with timber, in proof of which it may be stated that in the neighbourhood of Lough Annagh, oak, fir and yew trees are found in numbers lying a few feet below the surface, some of the roots adhering to the trunks and others remaining in their original position, the trunks having been burned off ad the charred cinder adhering in all tits freshness to both trunk and root; large trunks and roots of trees are also perceptible in the lake with their timber sound and remarkable tough. In the reign of Elizabeth, captain Leigh received the thanks of that Queen for having valiantly led the English cavalry from Birr to Athy through the woods and forests of Oregan. The country has since been entirely cleared of its old woods; but new plantations have sprung up in most parts. The farmhouses like the farms are generally small; many have neat gardens and orchards, which, with the hedgerow trees, give them the appearance of much rural comfort. Draining and irrigation are but little attended to. The principal portion of the county belongs to the great floetz limestone filed which forms the base of the greater part of the level country of Ireland; the Slieve Bloom mountains in the north west, are of the sandstone variation, and at the Slievemargue in the south east the coal formation commences near Timahoe, and extends east and south east to the Barrow and southwards almost to the Nore. It forms the northern extremity of the Kilkenny firled, from which only a small river separates it, and the coal is n every respect similar in each part; the portion included in the Queen's county extends about 3 miles by 2. The strata range is in Kilkenny, but the dip being to the west, the pits on this side are deeper. There are five collieries at work; namely Newtown, Wolf Hill, Doonane, Poulakele and Moydebegh; those of Rushes and Tolerton, though very valuable, are not wrought at present The pits at Newtown are from 45 to 48 years deep, all those around Moydebegh are from 61 to 64 years. The coal at Newtown and Doonane is equal to the best Kilkenny coal and sells at 20s per ton. Hence the poor people, even in the immediate vicinity of the pits cannot afford to use it, and it is entirely purchased by maltsters, brewers, distillers and smiths by who it is much sought after inasmuch as, being almost pure carbon, without any admixture of bitumen, it requires no preliminary preparation even for malting purposes; it is conveyed to all the surrounding counties chiefly on one horse carts. In the summer of 1836, 64 pits were at full work, for unwatering, which five steam engines were employed, but the coal is mostly raised by horses. The works furnished employment to 700 men and the value of the coal raised is estimated upwards of £78,000 per annum. Yet, notwithstanding thee advantages there workmen from their irregular and inconsiderate habits are miserable poor; and the district is frequently disturbed by broils and tumults; so that police stations are thickly distributed throughout this portion of the country iron ore shows itself in some parts and mines were wrought until the failure of the supply of timber for fuel caused them t o be relinquished; a ranch of the iron manufacture which had been successfully carried out at Mountrath when timber was plentiful has been discontinued for the same reason. Copper and Manganese have also been found. Slate quarries have been opened at Roundwood in Offerlane and at Cappard. Near Mountmellick are quarries of soft siliceous sandstone, which is wrought in to chimneypieces and hearthstones that are in great demand. Ochre, fullers' earth, and potters clay are met with. Potteries have long been established in the neighbourhood of Mountmellick, in which large quantities of tiles, crocks and garden pots are made. The other manufactures are confined to cottons, flannels, friezes and stuffs of a coarse durable kind for the clothing of the peasantry. Much broad cloth was woven in Mountmellick for the Dublin market, and a broad stuff called 'Durants' was also manufactured three and at Maryborough; but the trade has long declined. The same observation is applicable to serges, the use of which has been in a great measure superseded by that of cotton cloth. Cotton factories were erected at Cullinagh, Abbeyleix and on the Barrow near Athy, but al failed; the only one at present in the county is at Mountrath. In Mountmellick are an iron foundry and extensive breweries, a distillery and tanneries. At Donoughmore is a very extensive starch manufactory, the produce of which is almost exclusively sent to Dublin. Flour mills at Mountmellick, Coleraine, Maryborough, Castletown, Rathdowney, Donoughmore, Abbeyleix and Stradbally, besides several in other parts are each capable of manufacturing 12,000 barrels of flour annually. The Nore is the only river of any magnitude that passes through the county; it rises in the Slieve bloom mountains and enters Kilkenny near Durrow, receiving in this part of its course the Tonnet with its branch stream the Dolour, the Old Forge river, the Cloncoose with its branches the Cromoge and Corbally, the Trumry, the Colt, and the Erkin or Erkenny. The Barrow, which rises in the same mountain range, and forms the northern part of the eastern boundary of the county, receives the Blackwater, the Trihogue and the Owenass or Onas; it is navigable for barges from Athy downwards and quits the county for that of Carlow at Cloghgrennan. The Grand canal enters the county at Clogheen near Monastereven and is carried along near its eastern boundary for eight miles to Blackford, where it re-enters county Kildare and shortly afterwards communicates with the Barrow at Athy. Portarlington has carried a branch from Monastereven to Mountmellick. The roads are numerous throughout every part of the county; in general they are well laid out and kept in good order. The intended railway from Dublin to Kilkenny is to cross the Barrow from Kildare at Ardree below Athy and will proceed by Milford, Grange, Shruel and Graigue to Cloghgrennan and proceed thence by Leighlin Bridge to the city of Kilkenny. Relics of antiquity of every description known in Ireland are to be found here. There is a pillar to nearly perfect at Timahoe, in a valley near the ruin of a monastic building. On Kyle hill, about two miles from Burros in Ossory, is a rude seat of stone, called by the common people the Fairy Chair, which is supposed to have been an ancient judgement seat of Brehons. Near the southwestern verge of the county is an ancient Irish fortress, called baunaughra or @Ka?? Strngth@ little known because of its retired situation on top of a high hill surrounded by a deep circular fosse with a mound or wall on the summit. The other principle relics are described under the headings of the parishes in which they are situated. Monastic institutions, of a very early date were numerous, most of them have so completely fallen into decay that even their site cannot now be ascertained. The ruins of Ahgaboe, whither the seat of the See of Ossory, was removed from its original situation Saiger in the King's County until its final removal to Kilkenny, still exist in such a state of preservation to afford some idea of the extent and character of the buildings. The ruins of Aghmacart are also visible as are traces of those of Killedelig, Killermogh, Mun??hid or Disert Chuilin, and Teampul-na-cailliagh-?? Near Aghaboe. The churches of Dysartnos and Kilbane have been preserved as parish churches. The site of the monastery of Leix is known only by the town of Abbeyleix; that of Timahoe is conjectured with much probability from the round tower there, Rostuirc was near the Slieve Bloom mountains; Stradbally or Monaubealing stood near the town of Stradbally; Teagh Schotin and Slatey in Slievemargue; the sites of Cluainchaoin and Clua?murchir, Disert Fularthaigh, Disert Odrain, Kilfoe and Leamchuiil or Lahoil are wholly unknown. An ?? The remains of military antiquities is the rock of Dunamase, described in the account of the parish of Dysartnos. Lea castle on the barrow, eight miles from Dunamase is supposed to have been built around the same period, its architecture much resembling that of the other and it was further secured by its natural position, being protected on one side by the Barrow and on the other y a deep morass; it as incapable however, of holding out against Cromwell by whom it was taken and destroyed. The castles of Shean, M?? Lord Mortimer built Ballymanus and five others in the same part of the county, as posts of defence for the English tenants whom he endeavoured to settle on his estates. Shean or Sim castle was built on a conical hill; though not of great extent; it as of considerable strength, but not a vestige of it is now in existence. Burros in Ossory was a stronghold on the Nore, belonging to the Fitzpatrick's and a great pass to Munster; it was a scene of very bloody engagement during the war of 1641. Ballygihin, Castletown, Watercastle and castlefleming with several others belonged to the branches of the same family. Shambogh in the same district was a castellated mansion, which served as a protection against the repartees who infested the deep woods with which this part of Ireland was then covered, Grantstown, Ballagh, C??Byrne, Gortneclay, Coolkerrry and Kilbreedy are all in the same barony. Castlecuf in Tinnehinch built about 1641 by Sir Charles Coote celebrated for his military prowess is a very large ruin; he also built the castle at Ruish-hall. The castles of Clara, Ballinakill, Coolamona, Tinnehinch and Castlebrack are in the same district; the last named contains some subterraneous apartments, which were opened and partially explored, but presenting nothing more than small caves and the air being very foul, no attempt was made to penetrate to any extremity of any of them. The ruins of an old castle at Ballyadams, which gives name to the barony, are still visible; another is to be seen t grange. Shrule castle was in the southwestern extremity of the county near the town of Carlow. The entrance into the ruins of Cloghgrennan castle separated the county of Carlow from the Queen's county. The remains of Rathspeck castle were applied to the building of the nearby parish church. A conical heap of stones ion the summit of a very lofty hill, near the boundary of Stradbally barony is known by the name of Cobler's castle. The modern mansions of the nobility and gentry are noticed under the heads of their respective parishes. The middle classes of the gentry pay much attention to the improvement and embellishment of their grounds; their dwelling houses are handsome and convenient with suitable offices. The habitations of the peasantry though in many parts superior to those of neighbouring counties are very deficient in appearance of in internal comfort. Abbeyleix and Castletown are the exceptions, much attention being paid to the houses there; in the baronies of Maryborough and upper Ossory they are comfortable but in the northern barony of Tinnehinch they are very poor, being little better than hovels, and in the neighbourhood of the collieries still worse. A plot of ground from half an acre to an acre is generally attached to the peasant's hut, as a potato garden, for which he pays in labour from 20s to 50s rent. The fuel throughout the entire county is turf, the coal being used exclusively for manufacturing purposes, wood was formerly so abundant that a clause was introduced into many old leases binding the tenant to use no other kind of fuel; and at the present time the ancient custom of dues and services is inserted in many leases. A strong attachment to old customs is pointed out as being one of the characteristics of the peasantry; but that this adherence is not caused by prejudice alone is proved by their adoption of improved practises of agriculture, when the success of others had ultimately convinced them of their superior advantages. Another fact illustrative of this observation, is that the peasantry in all parts, even in the mountainous districts speak English fluently, the Irish never being heard except with some of the very old people. The custom of frequenting wells for devotional purposes is declining fast. Of the Chalybeate springs the most remarkable are those of cappard, Mountmellick, Killeshin and Portarlington; the first named being the strongest, but none of them are in much repute for their sanative qualities beyond their own immediate neighbourhood. There is a very singular curiosity called the Cut of Killeshin, about three miles from Carlow, on the road to the collieries. It is a pass through a lofty hill above half a mile long, and from 10 to 40 feet deep according to the rise of the ground, but not more than four feet four inches wide, cut through solid rock, so that cars have barely room to pass along it. The constant flow of water and the friction of the carriage wheels have occasioned this extraordinary excavation. The carrier as he approached the gap at either end, shouted loudly, and the sound was easily conveyed to the other extremity through the excavation. Should the cars have met within the cut, the driver of the empty car was bound to back out, a task of no small difficulty along this narrow and ill constructed road. A new road has been opened, which has obviated the necessity of making use of this pass. Contiguous to this cut are the ruins of Killeshin church, with an antique and highly ornamented entrance archway, surrounded by an inscription in Saxon characters now illegible. Adjoining the church was a rath with a deep fosse. This place was remarkable for once having been the chief town in the county, though not a stone building of is now standing, except the ruin just mentioned