As late as 1830 most clergy in the American Catholic Church were English or French. After that time, the Irish influenced American Catholicism. and tended to be more conservative and authoritarian than their French, English, and German Catholic counterparts. They also tended to share a negative view toward the many reform movements taking place in America - whether it was the temperance crusade, abolitionism, women's rights, public education, or antipoverty initiatives, most Irish clergymen viewed them as just so many variations of evangelical Protestantism that preached the "wrongheaded" idea that society, rather than just individuals, could be reformed. The embodiment of this trend toward authoritarian clergy and hostility to evangelical Protestant reform was John HUGHES (1797-1864) bishop of NY. Born in Co. Tyrone, he came to the U. S. in 1818 and entered Mount St. Mary's seminary in MD. Ordained in 1826 he soon achieved a national reputation as a fiery pro-Catholic as he engaged in many high-profile "debates" in the pages of leading Protestant and Catholic newspapers. His detractors called him "Dagger John" because of his personality and the fact that he always drew a dagger-like cross under his signature. He became a leading figure in the reshaping of the American Catholic Church along Irish lines - that is a militant brand of worship that emphasized obedience, piety, regular worship, and reception of the sacraments - backed by an authoritarian clergy. Central to this plan was a program of institution building designed to insulate Catholics from the corrupting influences of American culture. This included a vast sy! stem of parochial schools, hospitals, and orphanages, plus separate fraternal societies. His outlook was understandable, given the hostile environment of this era. However, it can be said that Hughes' model of defensive Catholicism hindered the full participation of Catholics in American life until the mid-20th century. New York City already had a cathedral named in honor of Ireland's patron saint, but it was rather small and located in the heart of the city's "Little Ireland" district. Archbishop John HUGHES envisioned a bigger cathedral in a more central location. Modeled after the great European Gothic cathedrals, the new St. Patrick's Cathedral was to stand as a proud symbol of Irish Catholic power in the city and in America. So, in 1858, with money pledged by the city's wealthy Catholics, Hughes presided over a groundbreaking ceremony commencing its construction. Many New Yorkers dubbed the project "Hughes' folly" when they learned it would be built way uptown on Fiftieth St. and Fifth Avenue, and they also criticized the Church for building an expensive building when so many Irish Catholics lived in poverty. But Hughes wanted a prominent symbol of Catholicism and knew the city would grow northward. After many delays including the Civil War, the new St. Patrick's opened in 1879.! To this day it is the largest Catholic cathedral in the U.S. and the 11th largest in the world. -- Excerpts, "1001 Things Everyone Should Know About Irish American History," Edward T. O'Donnell, (2002).