Karen Your description of the use of mitochiondrial DNA for establishing relationships is right on the money. It has already been used to confirm the findings of the Romonov family, the last royal family of Russia. Following the revolution of 1917 in Russia, the Romonov family was executed. In 1991, their presumptive remains were discovered. Genetic testing with nuclear DNA established that there was a family unit, consisting of a mother, a father and three daughters. The identity of the Czarina and the three daughters was confirmed by comparing their mitochondrial DNA with that of the grandson of one of the Czarina's sisters, who happens to Prince Phillip of England, Queen Elizabeth's husband (The Queen and Prince Phillip are in fact 3rd cousins). The match was perfect and from a genetic perspective, they were four generations apart. Attempts to identify the Czar were a bit more difficult. The closest living relative willing to be tested was an English Duke who was genetically six generations removed. Their mitochondrial DNA match was not perfect, the Czar had a mixed population of mitochondria, but the Duke didn't. Since each cell contains thousands of mitochondria, when a mutation occurs in one of them, that results in a mixed population of the two types. In time, one of the types will be lost, resulting in a homogeneous population. The investigators were able, however, to exhume the body of a brother of the Czar, who had died before the Revolution. He had the same mixed population of mitochondria as did the Czar, thun confirming the identity of the Czar. Finally, there was Anna Manahan who claimed to be Anastasia Romonov. When her DNA was compared to that of Prince Phillip, there were six differences, indicating that they were not related. In fact, her mitochondrial DNA matched that of a man who claimed to be her grand-nephew. The two pieces of evidence prove that Anna was not Anastasia, as romantic and appealing as the story may be. It will be interesting to see how many "generations" one can go back and still be able to make a positive identification. That might prove to be difficult for most of us, how many people can follow a strict MATERNAL line back 6 - 8 generations? Dick ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Richard C. Gethmann gethmann@erols.com ..... when you have eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth..... A. Conan Doyle