Check out this site to see how many people in the US share your name. Bunkers make up approximately .003 of the population and rank 4117 in the list of surnames. I checked some more of my ancestors and found one that ranked 44,000 + and another that was the 12th most common name in America. www.census.gov/genealogy/www/freqnames.html To determine the number of people with the name living in the US in 2000, multiply the percentage (.003) by the total population (281,421,906). To check out the frequency of names in England www.taliesin-arlein.net/names/search.php This site tells you how to figure out the number of people living in England with the name today and also the number who have been recorded since the 1600's. Very interesting site. .

>From The Alleganian (Cumberland, Maryland), 22 November 1865, page 1: Curious Effect of Epidemics.---The visit of the cholera to Europe seems to be as fatal to birds and beasts as to man. We hear of wild birds as well as domestic beasts dying in large numbers. In England, sheep, cows, and horses are visited with this plague. In Belgium poultry is attacked the same way. In Paris, the dread of the cattle disease is such, according to London Times that all dogs running at large are to be killed. Lest they become agents for the transmission of the contagion. A common impression is that these various forms of disease among the lower animals, also the abundance of insects, are a precursor of the cholera, and originate in a vitiated atmosphere. The frequent shocks of earthquake denote that the magnetic and electric currents which course through nature are producing great internal disturbances of the globe, and the facts may be related to each other as cause and effect.

A mortuary's website in Aurora, Nebraska that has recent funerals and obituaries it has handled, AND an archive of 2001/2. Not a huge source, but a source, anyway. The obits also have a picture of the person. It's very nicely done! http://www.higbymortuary.com/obituaries.html

The Effect Of War On Our Ancestors – Karen Frisch (reprinted with prior permission of Juliana Smith, Editor of Ancestry Daily News; from 19 Nov 2002, issue) Throughout history, war and its consequences have had a profound effect on our ancestors and on immigration in particular. Our ancestors' lives changed dramatically in the face of the social and economic upheavals that accompanied military conflicts throughout the centuries. The decision to emigrate was often motivated by more than mere economic need or the desire for a better life. Our ancestors had plenty of reasons to leave their homelands, including famine, poverty, religious persecution, and fighting during wartime. Frequently, war in the homeland made leaving more desirable than staying. Our forefathers often left because fighting was imminent. Hence the first big wave of immigration occurred in the 1600s when the Puritans chose to avoid the brewing conflict that became the English Civil War. Others emigrated when they found themselves in the middle of a conflict. Among the most notable are the many Armenians who fled their country during World War I. As recently as the 1960s, many Portuguese left the Azores when President John F. Kennedy agreed to give them refuge. Laotian, Hmong, and Vietnamese refugees also found safety in America during the Vietnam War. Some of our ancestors endured fighting at home but left at the close of wars where the government had been unseated and they chose not to live under the control of new leaders. When Bavaria entered the German Empire in 1870 and Prussia became the empire's largest kingdom, a large number of Bavarian immigrants came to America late in the century. Whether in America or abroad, the effect of warfare on the development of the American family was significant. While war made many families smaller by taking lives, it opened new worlds to others by introducing those who might never have met. World War I changed the American family's lifestyle in a major way. Young men who had never left home suddenly went overseas to France or to military bases across America. A soldier from Kansas might have found himself stationed at a base in Massachusetts, seeing the ocean for the first time. A new trend appeared as brides began to relocate across the country to new homes. After World War II the same process was repeated even more dramatically, setting the tone for future generations. Young American men sent overseas sometimes returned with more than military service. New brides came to America from places such as England, France, Italy, Germany, and Japan, stirring the family melting pot even further. Some soldiers, ironically, saw service in the homeland of their grandparents The world became smaller as horizons expanded, putting the older generation in touch with their native lands again and creating new generations made up of blended nationalities. In earlier centuries, wartime changed the appearances of families in other ways. When storms wrecked the Spanish Armada off northern Britain in 1588, those sailors fortunate enough to make it to the coast of Ireland were able to retain their religion. The stranding of many Spanish so far from home resulted in future generations of dark-haired Irish. The effect of war on women was especially devastating, leaving many widowed, poverty-stricken or with child by the invading armies. When America offered new hope, the prospect of traveling across the ocean no longer seemed as daunting. More about Karen .. Karen Frisch has spent years getting lost in cemeteries. With a background in Victorian studies, teaching, and writing, she has traced her lineage back thirty generations. Her interest in genealogy began as a child when her grandmother gave her a collection of old photographs from Scotland. .

Have a four-page list of tombstone symbols and meanings. If interested, just let me know and will send to you via email. Sally Rolls Pavia Sun City, AZ [email protected] All incoming and outgoing email checked by Norton Anti-Virus 2002

Found this online and found it interesting. British Military Terms and Soldier Slang .. great list http://www.geocities.com/faskew/Colonial/Glossary/British.htm Note: Many British military slang words had an Indian origin and spread from there throughout the Empire. In this list, I put those Indian words and phrases that were Anglicized and that I think native Indians would not have used, such as pukka sahib. In the Indian list, I put words that I think might have been used by either British or Indians or words that were specific to India and Afghanistan. This is a purely subjective placement and very likely full of errors. I could put certain words in both lists, but that, too, would likely be wrong, and placing them in only one list requires less effort from me. Examples: DEKKOTO .. take a look (Hindi, deckna, to look DENGUE FEVER .. an acute infectious virus transmitted by mosquitoes that produces headache, severe joint pain, and rash, also called breakbone fever (American Spanish [1828]) .

The following site list more than 5,000 known people who died in Galveston, TX in its 1900 Storm. Galveston at the time was considered to be the "Wall Street West of the Mississippi" and was heavily populated. Of course, it was and is a very important seaport for Texas and many immigrants passed through it in the 19th and early 20th century. Many never left the island. http://www.gthc.org/exhibits/storms/1900/victims/stormvic.htm Sally Rolls Pavia Sun City, AZ [email protected] All incoming and outgoing email checked by Norton Anti-Virus 2002

Really sorry for the HUGE goof. Sent this to the wrong mailing list in error Won't happen again!! West Valley Genealogical Society Class Schedule for 2003 – Jan-May

West Valley Genealogical Society Class Schedule for 2003 – Jan-May All classes meet at WVGS Library, 12222 N 111th Ave, Youngtown, AZ, (623) 933-4945 Pre-registration can be done at the monthly meeting of the Society, held on the 2nd Monday of each month at 1:30pm (Sept-May) at the First Presbyterian Church, 12225 N 103rd Ave, Sun City; or you may register at the library on Tuesday, Thursday, Friday or Saturday from 9am-4pm. EACH CLASS COSTS $6, for two-hours, for members and $8 for non-members, unless stated in description. Some classes may have material costs as well. MAKE CHECK PAYABLE TO THE INSTRUCTOR. BASIC and INTERNET GENEALOGY .. Jean M White, Instructor Cost: $29 for members and $37 for non-members (includes $5 materials fee) Meets: January 8th, 15th, 22nd and 29th from 1-3pm Meets: March 5th, 12th 19th and 26th NOVICE GENEALOGY.. Lorraine Menich, Instructor Cost: $6 for members and $8 for non-members Meets: January 8th, 6:30-8:30pm Meets: February 12th, 9:30-11:30am Meets: March 12th, 9:30-11:30am Meets: April 9th; 6:00-8:00pm Meets; May 14th, 9:30-11:30am BASIC FAMILY TREE MAKER .. Nancy Nielsen, Instructor Cost: $31 for members and $39 for non-members (includes $7 materials fee) Meets: January 13th, 20th, 27th and March 3rd, 9:30-11:30am Meets: January 14th, 21st, 28th and March 4th, 6:00-8:00pm Meets: March 17th, 24th, 31st and April 7th, 9:30-11:30am TMG (The Master Genealogist) Software Program Overview, Linda Lambert, Instructor Cost: $6 for members and $8 for non-members Meets: January 24th, Friday, 1:00-3:00pm INTERMEDIATE GENEALOGY .. Jean M White, Instructor Cost: $29 for members and $37 for non-members (includes $5 materials fee) Meets: February 5th, 12th, 19th and 26th, 1:00-3:00pm FAMILY TREE MAKER FILES .. Nancy Nielsen, Instructor Cost: $7 for members and $9 for non-members (includes $1 materials fee) Meets: February 10th, 9:30-11:30am Meets: February 11th, 6:00-8:00pm Meets: April 14th, 9:30-11:30am ADVANCED FAMILY TREE MAKER .. Nancy Nielsen, Instructor Cost: $29 for members and $37 for non-members (includes $7 materials fee) Meets: February 7th, 24th, March 3rd and 10th, 9:30-11:30am Meets: February 18th, 25th, March 4th and 11th, 6:00-8:00pm Meets: April 21st, 28th, May 5th and 12th, 9:30-11:30am ***Prerequisite to taking this class: MUST have taken Basic FTM & FTM Files*** PRESERVING YOUR MEMORIES I & II .. Nancy Leonhardt, Instructor Cost: $6 for members and $8 for non-members Meets: January 10th, 9:30-11:30am Meets: February 13th, 12:30-2:30pm Meets: March 12th, 9:30-11:30am **These classes are for beginner and advance students. Please bring 6-8 photos with you to these classes** .

The POORHOUSE STORY (a clearinghouse for information about 19th century American poorhouses) at www.poorhousestory.com There are other pages on the site which may give you some interesting perspective on poorhouses. They are off the homepage and include: the HISTORY page and the LETTER TO GENEALOGISTS as well as FEATURED ARTICLES. TIP: Poorhouses were called by various names in different locations. Some terms include: poorhouse, poor farm, county farm, county home, county infirmary (be careful of this one -- it may or may not refer to a poorhouse), or almshouse. Poorhouse records can usually be found on a list of holdings under the category "local government records -- county". It may take you a while to learn the search techniques needed, so be patient! It is well worth your time -- and can actually be quite educational and fun! Relax! Enjoy the process. But if you get stuck ... contact the staff for assistance. There are additional tips for researching poorhouse records for yourself on the RECORDS page; and you might want to subscribe to our (almost) monthly newsletter (which you can do in the lower right corner of the homepage). .

Authentic History of the Kilt by Nancy A. MacCorkill HISTORY OF HIGHLAND DRESS - MAINLY THE KILT Highland dress and the tartan are among the most powerful, romantic and dramatic of all the symbols of Scotland. It has been claimed that 'a man in a kilt is a man and a half', their really is something about the wearing of the kilt that confers extra stature on its owner. It is absolutely no coincidence that the kilted 51st Highland Division was rated by the Germans as the most formidable of all the formations they came across during the First World War. Certainly the British government had no doubts on the matter when, after the defeat of Bonnie Prince Charlie, they banned the use of Highland dress and the tartan, which they clearly saw as an incitement to further subversion. Offenders were killed or sent to the colonies. The form of Highland dress has always owed much to the army and it was the Highland regiments which kept the kilt and the tartan alive until at last, in 1782, their use was once more permitted. Before that time, Scots were only permitted to wear any Scottish wear, if they joined the British Armed Services. Pipers were permitted to wear their kilt, but usually in a Regimental color. Other service men, - most were permitted to wear the balmoral with their clan badge on it. A high price to pay to wear highland clothes, laying their life on the line to do it. Nowadays, the kilt is seen as the national dress of Scotland. In fact, it started life as NO SUCH THING, being entirely confined to the Highlands. The Lowlanders, who have always made up the majority of Scots, regarded what they considered a "barbarous" form of apparel with'loathing' and 'contempt' and conferred the opprobrious term of 'redshanks' on the Highlanders, who were, they reckoned, what we would now term 'blue' with cold. But today anyone with the smallest claim to Scots ancestry (and not a few without) proudly wears the kilt; even Lowland chiefs and their followers vie with their Highland counterparts in a way which their forfathers would have found incomprehensible and appalling. The kilt itself in its original form was a very basic garment which required neither the trouble of tailoring nor the frequent replacement which a pair of breeches needed. The tartan cloth forming a piece of material some 2 yards in width by 4 or 6 yards in length. This was known variously as the Breacan, the Feileadh Bhreacain and the Feileadh Mor - the big kilt, usually referred to in English as the belted plaid. To put it on, its owner "put his leather belt on the ground and then placed the material lengthways over it. This he then methodically plaited it in the middle, (suitable to the size of the wearer) over the belt until he had gathered along its length leaving as much at each end as would cover the front of the body, overlapping each other. Lying down on the belt, he would then fold these ends - overlapping each other. The plaid being thus prepared, was firmly bound round the loins with a leathern belt, in such a manner that the lower side fell down to the middle of the knee joint, and then while there were the foldings behind, the cloth was double before. The upper part was then fastened on the left shoulder with a large brooch, or pin, so as to display to the most advantage the tastefulness of the arrangement, the two ends being sometimes suffered to hang down, but that on the right side, which was of necessity the longest, was more usually tucked under the belt." The belted plaid had many advantages in the Highland climate and terrain. It allowed freedom of movement, it was warm, the upper half could provide a voluminous cloak against the weather, it dried out quickly and with much less discomfort than trousers and if required it could, by the mere undoing of the belt, provide a very adequate overnight blanketing. The tightly woven wool proved almost completely waterproof, something the lose woven wool of today -- is not. When complete freedom of action was required in battle it was easily discarded, and one famous Highland clan battle, that between the Frasers the MacDonalds and Camerons in 1544, is known as Blar- na-Leine, which can be translated as 'Field of the Shirts'. The garment that was (originally) largely, -- that of the people; and lesser leaders) worn a Leine Croich or saffron shirt, in fact a knee- length garmet of leather, linen or canvas, heavily pleated and quilted, which provided a surprisingly good defense and which was much more mobile (and less expensive) than contemporary plate armour. This form of dress in to be seen on West Highland tombstones right up to the early seventeenth century, worn with a high conical helmet and the great two-handed claymore. For ordinary wear the kilt may be made of tartan or tweed and may be box-pleated or knife-pleated (as are most); for dress wear it should be of the dress tartan of the Clan. If the Clan posses one. The kilt should be worn with the lower edges reaching not lower than the centre of the knee-cap. The ordinary or everday jacket and vest worn with the kilt, should be made of tweed, home-spun (usually wool) or lighter weight for summer, or other suitable material preferably with horn buttons. The sporran, or purse, may be made of leather for day wear; the head and skin of the badger, seal, ermine or other light and dark coloured skins for evening. (The kilt having no pockets, the sporran was evolved by necessity). Hose for daywear can be a white or oatmeal color, for evening they should be tartan to match the kilt, fine knit, woven or cut from the piece. Garters are usually of wool or worsted, and knotted with a garter knot, the end or flashes handing below the overturn. At present elastic garters with tartan flashes attached are popular. Colours either red, green or navy blue. Instead of a tie, the lace jabot is worn over a plain white shirt, in modern days, some wear the tie but the lace jabot is favored. Lace cuffs are usually sewn or snapped into the jacket. Shoes for evening wear should be light weight and with silver gilt buckles. Gillies or a light weight leather shoe with the appearance of gillies can be worn and are well suited to dancing the Country Dances. Shoes for daywear any color leather that compliments the kilt. The "Balmoral" style bonnet is the most popular style of headwear. And it approximates more closely to the old broad bonnet of the Highlander. It is generally dark blue, green, and brown in color, and may have a pom-pom (usually) of red. The bonnet should display the crest buckle and strap in silver of the wearer, (if he is entitled to wear one - if he is in fact, a member of that clan). Under no circumstances should ordinary clansmen wear the crest without the strap and buckle which indicates that the wearer is merely displaying the topmost part of his chief's crest in the strap and buckle. Only the Chief of the Clan is entitled to wear the full Crest. The diced (or orange checkered) band around the base of the balmoral indicates loyalty to the House of Hanover, i.e. the King/Queen of England. Highlanders generally do NOT wear the diced Balmoral, but choose to wear the plain dark blue bonnet; many lowlanders may choose wear the diced cap as they are intermingled with English blood and loyalties. Some Lowlanders also will not wear the diced cap. It is a matter of loyalties as some Lowlanders and Highlanders are loyal to the highlands, and would not wear the diced cap, even after all these years. The wearing of a dirk, although not necessary, is generally carried in the loop on the kilt, at the waist, made for the dirk. A sgian-dubh, (or small dagger) however, is carried in the right hand stocking on all occasions. The kilt is male attire and should NEVER be worn by the ladies, except Highland dancer lassies. As it happens, pre-nineteenth century portraits of the chiefs and lairds painted in tartan are remarkablly few; in general, apart from those wearing kilted military uniforms, they preferred to have their pictures painted in ordinary dress of the time. The Feileadh Beg, or little kilt, is what is worn today. In essence it consists of the lower part of the old belted palid with the pleats sewn in at the back and neatly tailored (knife pleated), the ends of the kilt's two aprons being drawn across the front of the body and secured usually by buckle and strap. This form of dress may have existed earlier, but there is no sign of it before 1725. It is a severe shock to many people to find that the "little kilt's originator may well have been an Englishman, one Rawlinson, who was employed as the manager of an iron smelting works in Lochaber who adapted it, to allow more freedom of movement for his workers. (Probably so they could work faster being the concerned English they were). Be that as it may, it is this form of garment which is now firmly taken as being the kilt. Identification at any distance of differing clans was due largely to the wearing of the various clan plant-badges of which, it will be noticed, is a considerable feature by an easily visible token in the bonnet so as to allow other clan members to know who their clan, septs and friends were in a battle. This plant-badge was worn on the bonnet or balmoral. During the Jacobite uprising the white cockade (from the French cocarde or the Old French coquarde meaning "vain, or cocky"). It was worn in the bonnet to identify supporters of Bonnie Prince Charlie. The modern, armorially correct fashion for a clansman of wearing (the upper portion) of his chief's crest within a buckle and strap displaying the motto as a silver cap badge, as stated earlier, only the Chief of the clan can wear the complete crest. Today, tartans abound and it is an unfortunate person indeed who will not be told by the tartan shops that he or she indeed can buy 'their' tartan. The ascribing of a vast plethora of names to membership of various clans has long been an industry in itself - luckily there is insufficient time or space here to enter into that particular subject! The convention has now been adopted that it is the chief of the clan - assuming that there is one - who lays down who belongs to his clan and what is its tatan. The transformation of the attitude towards the Highlander in the mind of the rest of the nation from the fear and disgust engendered by the Jacobite rebellions (few people would believe that there were many Scots in arms against Prince Charlie than for him, but such is the case), to admiration and respect is nothing short of remarkable. Jacobite (from new latin Jacobus meaning: James, or latin meaning Jack). It was a name chosen to show support for James II. The bravery of the Highland regiments of the latter part of the eighteenth century, must give them the right to claim a large part of the credit, but the early years of the ninteenth century saw the arrival of an extraordinary veneration and romanticizing of the Highlander. Of course, the most eminent enthusiast of things Highland was Queen Victoria herself, her task at the time being summed up in that splendid word 'Balmorality'. The Queen displayed enormous pride in her Stewart ancestry, ignoring the fact that if that family had triumphed a hundred years before, her own would have remained in undistinguished obscurity. Her reign saw the final transformation of what their detractors could claim to be a race of savages, however noble, into figures of glamour and romance. The process can perhaps be summed up by the comparison between the silver encrusted and often caringorm ornamented ceremonial dirk with its knife and fork in the sheath so frequently illustrated in Scottish books, and the much older and plainer example on display at Inveraray Castle. Any doubt as to the stark purpose of the latter is dispelled by the Gaelic inscription on its worn blade which, being translated, reads 'Give me blood for I am thirsty...'. The element of fantasy is still with us today now that Highland dress is popular as never before. There is something that is very special indeed about the kilt and the tartan. It is a limp back indeed that does not straighten as the kilt is buckled on and a poor heart that is not lifted just a little, at the sight of the colours of the clan. The kilt has now become, beyond any doubt the national dress of Scotland; let us keep it that way and ensure it is not allowed to decline into mere fancy dress. Regimental tartans can be addressed in another article although one must mention the influence of Regimental tartans played a very large part in keeping the tartan very much alive and very greatly revered. Lady Nancy A. MacCorkill, s.c.h. Email: [email protected] Member of Clans Gunn; MacLeod of Lewis and Marshall Sources: Clans of Scotland by Innes Clans and Tartan, R. Bain, MacNaughton, Clans of Scotland Scottish Clans, Innis Lord Lyons Office, Agent of the Queen [Credits] Standard Disclaimer Researched (C)opyrighted: All Rights Reserved NAM 1997/98

The most important thing to remember when cleaning a tombstone is to be GENTLE. The first priority should be to make sure that nothing you do to a stone will cause harm. 1) Be sure that the tombstone is sturdy and stable, and not wobbly, flaking, chipping, or crumbling. 2) Clean the tombstone with plain water and a soft bristle (natural or nylon) brush. 3) Scrub the stone from the bottom up to avoid streaking and staining. Flush well with water as you go. 4) If lichen is stubborn then soak it well with water and gently scrape with a wooden craft stick/tongue depressor or a plastic putty scraper. 5) Stay away from chemicals and bleach on older stones. While these may provide immediate results, the chemicals may cause deterioration of the stone over time. 6) Don't aim for perfection! There are a lot of great tips for cleaning gravestones safely on the Net. You can find a list of some of the better ones here: http://genealogy.about.com/cs/cemeterytips/ More sites sites for information on cleaning or not cleaning gravestones. http://www.gravestonestudies.org/preservation.htm http://nysparks.state.ny.us/field/fsb/graveyard.htm Loads of Information at Cyndi's http://www.cyndislist.com/cemetery.htm Other sites to check: Saving Graves http://www.savinggraves.org/education/bookshelf/shavingcream.htm Cemetery Protection http://www.preserveala.org/cemetery.html Sally Rolls Pavia Sun City, AZ [email protected] All incoming and outgoing email checked by Norton Anti-Virus 2002 .

Obituary Central http://www.obitcentral.com has added the Hamilton County Obituary Search Engine to the Tennessee page. To go directly to the search engine use http://www.obitcentral.com/obitsearch/counties/tn-hamilton.htm. Obituaries from August 2000 to July 2002 are indexed. Also, check out the new Surname Search Utility at http://surnames.obitlinkspage.com to find some of those hard to research surnames. Sally Rolls Pavia Sun City, AZ [email protected] All incoming and outgoing email checked by Norton Anti-Virus 2002

Some of you might be interested in this new mailing list re Orphan Trains. To find out all about the Orphan Trains, check out the following site: freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~irishrose/orphan-trains-l.htm Sally Rolls Pavia Sun City, AZ [email protected] All incoming and outgoing email checked by Norton Anti-Virus 2002

The Battle of the Wilderness .. Braddock's Defeat In January 1755 an English fleet, with two regiments set sail from Cork for North America. These under- strength regiments were to be brought up to strength with recruits from the colonies. Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Peter Halkett commanded the 44th, with 700 regulars, 5 companies of Virginia Rangers: Capt. Adam Stevens Co., Capt. Peter Hogg's Co., Capt. Thomas Waggoner's Co., Capt. Thomas Cocke's Co., and Capt. William Perronée's Co. Captain Ely Dagworthy’s Maryland and New York, and some 50 carpenters. Colonel Thomas Dunbar commanding the 48th, with 650 regulars, 230 Rangers from Virginia and Captain Edward Brice Dobb’s North Carolina Rangers, plus 35 carpenters. Both regiments also had one independent company from New York To supervise the ferrying and block and tackle work, Lieutenant Charles Spendlowe from H.M.S. Norwich was attached with a landing party to the gunners. For the assault they brought four 12-pounders, six 6-pounders, four 8-inch howitzers and fifteen mortars. With these 1,400 British regulars and 500 colonial troops, 45 year old General Edward Braddock meant to drive the French out of Fort Duquesne, which they had built on the site of the present city of Pittsburgh Pennsylvania. After drilling his combined force at Fort Cumberland, Braddock marched into the Allegheny wilderness in June 1755. His advance was cautious and in good order, with the pioneers (engineers) hacking a road 12 feet wide through the virgin forest. Built on an old Indian trail, the road was widened and surfaced to accommodate both wagons and cannon. While the axe-men hacked the road, clearing as they went, often no more than four miles could be covered. At far off Michilimackackinac, Charles de Langlade had been gathering Ottawa Huron and Chippewa tribesmen to take up the hatchet against the English. With two hundred warriors in a fleet of canoes, he headed southward, paddling from dawn till dark in fine June weather. Early in June they arrived at Fort Duquesne and reported to Captain Lienard de Beaujeu, the French commander. Indian scouts reported seeing Braddock s army advancing in three columns toward the Monongahela River. Commander de Beaujeu decided to intercept them there. Along with six hundred Frenchmen and Indians, Langlade marched to the Monongahela and concealed themselves in dense ravines along the river. By July 7th, Braddock s army reached the Monongahela at a point about ten miles from Fort Duquesne. The French and Indians were waiting when the English arrived and broke ranks for their noon rations. Langlade wanted to attack at that moment, but Beaujeu hesitated: The British outnumbered them more than two to one. Langlade persisted--they could not halt the British in open battle, but they could stun them now from ambush. On the morning of July 9th, Lt. Colonel Thomas Gage was ordered to lead a strong advance party across the river. The British had been forced to ford the river twice to avoid a narrow defile and were in engaged in a short skirmish at the second crossing with some thirty Indians who fled. Now they were in more open country, woods rather than thick forest. A band played and redcoats and provincials stepped out, with Braddock and his men following closely behind in two columns. Grenadiers were on the flanks, Virginians in the rear, and cattle and packhorses were between the columns. Waiting for them was Beaujeu, who had great difficulty in persuading his Indians to stay. Like them, he and his men were stripped for action and painted. Braddock's men marched on. Suddenly, Beaujeu appeared, turned and waved his hat to the men behind him. He was killed almost at once, but the French and Indian losses were small. The redcoats swung from their columns into line as bullets tore into them from the trees. The French Canadians took to their heels, and only the prompt action of Captain Dumas and Charles Langlade, leading the Indians, prevented them from following the French. Yet despite this disarray in the enemy ranks, the British were doomed. The British advance party was soon driven back into the main body of the army, which had advanced to meet it. With the enemy firing from cover, and the advance guard s attempted retreat, the troops could not form ranks. Confusion turned to panic, orderly withdrawal became a rout The British never saw their enemies; they fired blindly across the river. Crouching in trees and thickets, the shadowy Indians cut down the British regiments. They could not see their enemy and their whole training was foreign to the situation. So as the provincials sensibly took cover, the redcoats became confused and fired at them by mistake. Indian marksmen soon picked off the officers on their horses, and their men went out of control. Braddock arrived and did his best with curses and the flat of his sword to restore order. But his men were broken up into heaving groups, totally without purpose, except for some of the colonials. The few British who tried to take cover, Indian fashion, incurred their leader's wrath. Braddock had four horses shot from under him, while trying to rally his troops. He was shot through the lungs while mounting the fifth horse, and while his troops scattered, the Indians charged after them with tomahawks and scalping knives. In horrible pain Braddock lingered four days, then his body was buried in the middle of the military road. The troops marched over the site so the Indians would not find and mutilate the body. In the end 977 of the 1,459 British and Provincial army, including 63 of the 86 officers, were killed. The Indians, as usual, were too busy with plunder to follow: the booty that they took included Braddock s war chest. In it were all the British plans for the military operations in the south and west. It was George Washington brought the news of the disaster back to Dunbar. The fleeing redcoats met the supply wagons at Gist s Plantation, where Dunbar had sent them, but the panic went on. At Dunbar s camp, Dunbar himself ordered the destruction of everything: Cannons, ammunition, powder wagons and shells, a disgraceful miscalculation although another attack seemed imminent. http://americanhistory.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite htm?site=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalhistory.org%2F1754.html Sally Rolls Pavia Sun City, AZ [email protected] All incoming and outgoing email checked by Norton Anti-Virus 2002 .

"Neither Snow nor Rain..." With origins dating back to the seventeenth century, today's United States Postal Service has a long history of meeting the varied needs of an expanding and changing nation. by Cathleen Schurr for American History Magazine The first real postal system in the English colonies was begun under a royal patent in 1692. The system worked reasonably well, with weekly mail service among several cities from New Castle, Delaware, to Portsmouth, New Hampshire but it was not a profitable venture. Letters carried "outside the mails" provided competition that reduced the system's revenues. In 1707, the Crown bought back the patent and took control of the colonial postal system, appointing a succession of postmasters general during the next 68 years. Among those appointees was Benjamin Franklin--printer, newspaper publisher, and beginning in 1737, Philadelphia's postmaster. Aware that travel at government expense and mailing privileges--perquisites that would allow him to promote his ideas throughout the colonies--came with the office of postmaster general of the colonies, Franklin vigorously pursued the appointment. His efforts were rewarded in 1753 when he and William Hunter of Virginia were named co-deputy postmasters general for the Crown. While in office, Franklin developed new post roads, setting out milestones to show how far a postman, who was paid by the mile, had traveled; established faster service to Europe; expanded routes between Canada and New York; and instituted overnight post riders between New York and Philadelphia that allowed for an exchange of letters between those cities in just two days. He also invented the pigeonhole system for mail distribution and developed an early postal inspection service, "bringing postmasters to account." In 1761, under Franklin's watch, the colonial post office showed a profit for the first time. And for the next several years, it returned a surplus to the British treasury, a feat in which Franklin took great pride. But the colonists were becoming increasingly dissatisfied with Britain's postal policies. They began to view the high British postal rates as a grievous" form of taxation without representation and took steps to undermine the Crown's postal monopoly. Although he had argued that postal rates differed from the hated Stamp Tax of 1765 because they were payment for a service rendered, Franklin's open support of the colonists on related issues won him disfavor with the Crown, and he was dismissed from office in 1774. Soon after, William Goddard established an alternative post office, controlled by committees in the various colonies. Goddard's "Constitutional Post" served the colonists' needs until July 1775, when the Second Continental Congress took control of the postal system and named the experienced Franklin postmaster general. During the Revolutionary War, the postal service helped to unite the country in a common cause. Post riders carried the mail at great hazard to themselves between armies in the field and a government that shifted locales in order to avoid capture, as well as between soldiers and their families. The government created by the Articles of Confederation, which took effect in March 1781, recognized the importance of a good communication system among the states. But rivalries among the now-sovereign states and between the states and the weak central government--coupled with the severe economic problems facing the new confederation--adversely affected its post office department. Thanks to a series of reforms by Ebenezer Hazard, who was appointed postmaster general in 1782, the ailing system managed to remain afloat. When the Founding Fathers drafted a new constitution in 1787, they included a provision authorizing Congress to "establish post offices and post roads." Accordingly, Congress passed legislation creating the United States Post Office in 1789. The organization and the scope of its authority, however, were not determined for three more years, and the old Confederation Post Office remained in place in the interim. The job of directing this nebulous body fell to Samuel Osgood of Massachusetts, named postmaster general by President George Washington in 1789. Osgood inherited a disorganized and impoverished postal system that consisted of 75 post offices and more than 2,000 miles of post roads. Local post offices often were no more than a portion of a shop or tavern counter, while post roads included vast stretches of swampland or mud-locked and tree-stump-infested barriers. Finally, in 1792, Congress established a central postal policy, setting postage rates according to the distance that the mail would travel. Part of the Treasury Department, the Post Office was ordered to be self-supporting and to use any profits to extend service. By stipulating that Congress, not the postmaster general, would be responsible for establishing post roads, the law gave the American people a voice in postal affairs through their representatives and senators, one that they would repeatedly use to have the postal service extended to new areas. In those days before the advent of envelopes, letters consisted of sheets of paper that were folded, tucked in at the ends, and secured with sealing wax. Until the mid-nineteenth century, distance and the number of sheets being sent gauged rates. Although most people continued to collect their mail at the nearest post office, a 1794 act did permit home delivery at the cost of two cents extra in postage for each letter. Payment of postage fell to the one receiving the mail on a cash-on-delivery (COD) basis, rather than to the sender. http://americanhistory.about.com/library/prm/blpostoffice1.htm Sally Rolls Pavia Sun City, AZ [email protected] All incoming and outgoing email checked by Norton Anti-Virus 2002 .. .

Decided to go with RootsWeb for the mailing list, they offer good support and reaches a wider range of folk. If any of you would prefer the Digest format, please let me know and I'll get it changed. If you receive this message twice, again .. let me know and will remove one. Sally Rolls Pavia Sun City, AZ [email protected] All incoming and outgoing email checked by Norton Anti-Virus 2002