INDIAN MEDICINE-MEN – Yana (The) medicine woman (said), "It is four days now that I have been doctoring her, and she is not well yet. I am afraid that perhaps she will not recover." "Do you go after him," (said the sick woman's husband,) "perhaps he will cure her. He is always saying, 'I am a great medicine-man.'" (The medicine-man) has arrived. "Put down water on the ground!" 274 Round white shell beads he offered him as pay, he offered him dentalia. (He thought,) "He will be glad because of these, when he sees them." "I do not like these trinkets here," (said the medicine-man). "I like p!ale'‘si shell beads." "And do you doctor her! Doctor her during the night, perhaps she will recover." "Oh, I am not afraid of my doctoring the one that is sick. Why should I be afraid? I am a medicine-man. She will not cry. She will yet eat her own food." "Go out of the house! Shout! Call upon your dream spirit So always does the medicine-man do." "She will recover, I dreamt. 'Pray speak to the spring of water!' my dream tells me. 'Pray do not eat! Go ahead and eat tomorrow when the sun is overhead! You shall go to the spring to bathe!' I dreamt. 'Pray pass the night on the mountain!' Now I shall return in the night. Wake up the people. They will help to sing. I am a good medicine-man. 'Pray ask the rocks! Ask the trees! Ask the logs! Go about twice, and the owl will talk and the yellowhammer, and pray roll tobacco between your hands and smoke it. Do not eat anything! Pick up the round luck stones!' Thus I dreamt. She will recover." "Ho! you people wake up! He's 275 already coming back. Do you all go into the house together and sing. I shall do likewise whenever any of you are sick; I shall do likewise, even if I do not sleep. There are still other people who have not come to my house. If I had had much to eat they would all have come, and they would all have been laughing among themselves, if I should have had food to give them. 276 Those people do not like to assist in singing. I shall go to bring them; they shall help to sing. I suppose they raise their hands contemptuously at me. 277 Perhaps, is it not, they are sound asleep or eating, therefore they do not come over. I suppose they do not hear. Run over to tell them to come tomorrow! 'I am a sensible person,' indeed they say. Pray do not let them say that, even if they have handsome wives. 278 If they refuse, pray let at least one come along. Pray let him come the day after tomorrow." "I should like to see my brother. Do you go after him to bring him back to me!" (said the sick woman). (The medicine-man said,) "I have dreamt of everything. 'Pray do so!' it said to me. 'Doctor her for three nights!' said my dream to me. 'She shall recover and go about, she shall go off to get roots, she shall procure food for herself,' said my dream to me. 'Shout! Run around the house, when you are about to enter the house again.' Pray do not make a noise. Pray stop the children from making a sound, stop the dogs from making a noise! I might stagger and fall down, I have not much heart." (When he returned, he said,) "There is no one here, I am the first. I am tired already. The medicine-woman is angry, is she not? therefore she does not help me in doctoring. Let her soak cu'nna roots in water. I shall eat them raw. Now I shall eat them, if I see that she 279 is to eat her own. I shall not go off and leave her, I shall go off home only when she shall have recovered. I rejoice (that she will recover). I do not like to have my brother lose her. I always come here and I always eat here, that is why I am sorry for him. I am the only medicine-man. I go to every spring, and I am answered. It 280 will not abandon me. Blood flows from out of my nose, I have it running out of my body; the blood flows straight out, every part of my body is covered with blood. I shall find it 281 for you. If I die, then all the good people will die, then they will drop dead. I was possessed of supernatural power. The women are not thus. The women that are doctors I have never yet heard to cure; they merely put on style, wearing their ceremonial net-caps. I am not thus, that is why I remain alive. 282 I am let alone, and I am good. People take pity on me, that is why it is that I am quick to take pity on them. I am seen coming and she is told, 'Hurry up and cook! he is already coining! Feed him!' he says to his wife. 'Cook!' he says. 'Feed him!' I dreamt, that is why I came here; I came to see what I could do for you. I would not do thus, I shall not step in that trail, if I drop dead. Now I shall have ceased. 283 I seem to be like one who looks on, while you people are eating. I have never done thus, although my people are many in number. 284 I seem to be like one who looks on, and as though I say, 'Would that I might enter the house!', that therefore I came." MARRIAGE. He had been bringing her food. (She said to him,) "I do not love you." (Her mother said to her,) "I like him. Take him for your husband! I want to have him as son-in-law. I will not have you in my house, you shall not again enter my house (unless you take him as husband). Let us get food!" 286 (Then she said to him,) "We shall go together. I love you very much. To-morrow we shall get married. Let all of your people come here. All of you come and see us, and stay all night! I have nothing to say against it. I do not know what (my mother) says, but probably she will be very glad to have (you) as son-in-law. (Her mother said to her,) "I am glad that you have taken him as husband; I am tired of feeding you. You shall go home with him and keep house with him, and you will have children. Truly I shall come to see you, and he will come to see us. Whenever I am hungry you will give us food. He will go to hunt deer, and I shall fetch it home. He will go to get salmon, and I shall fetch it home. Do you give us food! You shall give us food, and I shall pound acorns. I shall do similarly for you. I shall fetch them to your house, and you will feel rejoiced, my daughter! Whenever you see me coming you will feel rejoiced, and you will give food to your people. Every one of them will be glad. You have always been very good, you have been sensible. Your husband is a good man and he is sensible." He said to her,) "And I will give you as food whatever I hunt. Surely I shall not whip you. You on your part shall not scold me." (She said to him,) "If I have a child we shall go off to your house. Stay now in my house." (He said to her,) "Yes, I will stay in your house. Now I shall go out hunting." (She said to him,) "Now we shall grow old together. Perhaps it will be I who shall die first, perhaps it will be you." Footnotes: 174:273 In this and the following texts attempt was made to secure from Betty Brown an account in her own language of some phases of Yana religious and social life. Owing to her tendency to use conversational narrative instead of general description, these texts are rather illustrative by means of real or imaginary incidents of the life of the Yana than ethnologically satisfying statements. No. XIV gives an idea of the touchy medicine-man, insulted because few are found willing to assist him in his doctoring. 178:274 For the medicine-man. Cf. p. 193, l. 2. 179:275 I.e., the medicine-man, who has passed the night up on the mountain to gain supernatural power. 179:276 They would laugh for joy. As it is, they are not very enthusiastic about helping a poor man. 179:277 It was a sign of contempt to extend one's arm with outspread fingers towards another. 179:278 Bitterly ironical. 180:279 I.e., the sick woman. 180:280 I.e., my supernatural power, guardian spirit. 180:281 I.e., the disease-causing "pain." 180:282 He implies that he does not cause any one's death, so that there has been no reason to seek his life. If a medicine-man failed too frequently to cure, he was suspected of malice and was decapitated. 181:283 The medicine-man is disgusted with the scurvy treatment accorded him and swears never to do as much again. 181:284 I.e., although there are many relatives whose hospitality I might claim. 182:286 In other words, the mother finds it hard to support her daughter and is only too glad to dispose of her to a desirable son-in-law. [Obtained in July and August, 1907, a few miles to the north of the hamlet of Round Mountain (or Buzzard's Roost), Shasta county. The informant was Betty Brown (Indian name Ts!i'daimiya), since dead. There are now not more than seven or eight Indians that are able to speak the dialect. In some respects Betty was an inferior source of text material to Sam Bat'wi, as evidenced by the very small number of myths it was found possible to procure from her. Her method of narrative was peculiar in that she had a very marked tendency to omit anything, even the names of the characters involved, that was not conversation; this has necessitated the liberal use in the English translation of parentheses in which the attempt is made to arrive at a somewhat smoother narrative.] Yana Texts, by Edward Sapir. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 1-235 [1910] and is now in the public domain

Indian Justice - Stillaguamish Released 27 November 2002 Indian Stories and Legends of the Stillaguamish and Allied Tribes The Indian had no law books. He had the unwritten law. It worked. For instance a man accused of adultery was tried by members of the tribe and if found guilty, he was publicly flogged. If the crime was, repeated he was given a heavier dose and the third time banished. The methods of dealing with law violators varied greatly among the different tribes.

Indian Identity Who's drawing the boundaries? BY REKHA BALU ,Rekha Balu is a Chicago-based free-lance writer. American Indian law is replete with ironies: Tribes look to the U.S. government for recognition as nations, the same government that assumed many of their lands and possessions. Descendants of American Indians must apply to become citizens of tribes, yet they are citizens of the United States simply by being born. And, most ironic, an entire body of law exists about American Indians that they had no part in shaping. According to some Indian scholars, the explanation for these incongruities is that, in the eyes of the U.S. government, "American Indian" is not a racial classification. It is a means of defining the government's political relationship with Indians--the balance of which rarely has been tipped in the Indians' favor. Key to understanding this relationship is the concept of tribal sovereignty. Although the dictionary defines sovereignty as "supreme and independent political authority," the sovereignty granted to American Indians is far less absolute. As outlined in The Rights of Indians and Tribes (published by the American Civil Liberties Union), sovereignty for tribes entails the right to: Form tribal governments Determine tribal membership Regulate tribal and individual property Assess taxes Establish law enforcement systems Regulate domestic relations Regulate commerce and trade Exclude nonmembers from tribal territory. Yet, at the same time, Congress holds the power to revoke a tribe's recognition and declare it nonexistent or place it under the jurisdiction of the federal government. Caught in the Middle Because the tribes rely on funding for educational, social, and public works services from the federal and state governments, they have been dubbed "dependent sovereigns." State and federal money directed to tribes finances such crucial services as the development of sanitation and sewage systems, the providing of adequate health care, and the establishment of schools on the reservation or transportation to schools in neighboring areas. In a sense, these services are viewed by the U.S. government as reparations for its past undermining of tribal governments and cultures: For example, it wasn't so long ago--from about 1930 to 1960--that tribal children were sent to boarding schools that forbade them to speak their native languages and taught them nothing about their Indian culture. Philip Deloria, head of the American Indian Law Center in Albuquerque, New Mexico, is one of a number of Indian law experts who questions whether the United States ever intended to maintain the sovereignty of tribes. "The United States has always had the notion that tribes were temporary," he says. "It's part of that assimilation mentality." Ironically, in resisting assimilation in favor of pressing for fuller sovereignty, the tribes have had to survive without the real benefits of either. Services distributed through the Bureau of Indian Affairs and other agencies devoted to American Indians resemble municipal services and are not meant to substitute for benefits from federal entitlement programs nor preclude Indians from receiving state services. Yet, a 1972 study by the Office of Management and Budget found that only 78 of 1,000 federal assistance programs were serving the tribes. "[States] should treat Native Americans like their other citizens," says Tova Indritz, former Federal Public Defender in New Mexico. "But with limited state resources, they think tribes should take care of themselves." Under the umbrella of "dependent sovereign," the tribes also have come up short. The amount of funding for many government programs that benefit Indians is determined by U.S. Census figures. In 1991, the Bureau of Census reported that American Indians were undercounted by 5 percent in the 1990 Census, which is about 98,000 people. The ramifications of the undercount--underfunding--provide a good illustration of how nebulous the concept of sovereignty can be. The tribes may be "sovereign," but with inadequate funding, they are left unable to fully serve their members. Individual Identity Congress dissolved more than 100 tribes between 1954 and 1966, stripping them of the status and the funding necessary to establish internal governments, claim land bases, and provide social services. The termination of tribes in this way left many Indians with no home and, consequently, no sense of identity. Although the Nixon administration put an end to the termination policies, all but two of the tribes had to file numerous lawsuits against the U.S. Department of the Interior to regain recognition. Today, because status as a member of a federally-recognized tribe provides monetary as well psychological benefits, membership has been quantified and officialized. (To receive federal and state services, applicants must be card-carrying tribe members.) For membership in some tribes, a candidate must show proof that one of his or her parents is a full-blooded member of the tribe; other tribes ask for a document that proves a relative is a member of the tribe. Some tribes require that even children born to enrolled parents on the reservation petition for membership, as they may be too many generations removed from a full-blooded tribe member to qualify. Enrollment requirements that are document driven tend to dehumanize the concept of identity and diffuse any sense of home, some Indian scholars say. "[Enrollment] was a more powerful statement when [tribes] were receiving no benefits," Deloria says. When faced with such laborious enrollment requirements and the potential isolation of their children, Indians who have descended from several tribes may base their tribal affiliation not on which tribe represents their primary heritage, but on which has the less arduous enrollment requirements. Not surprisingly, the politics of tribal enrollment have created a certain amount of enmity among Indians--those with closer blood ties are thought by some to be "purer" Indians. Yet many Indian activists have been quick to say it is foolish for Indians to criticize one another for a cultural and racial dilution that was initiated by non-Indians. In her 1995 photo essay, Apertures, Theresa Harlan wrote, "Identity politics is an invention of the U.S. government." Ultimately then, identity is defined not by a constitution nor rules, but by belief and pride in one's own cultural heritage. Sidebar 1: To Enroll: For most Indians, the task of petitioning for membership in a tribe requires extensive research. Some tribes require a connection to the father's side of the family; others require matrilineal descendence. Some, such as the Hopi Tribe, require that the candidate have at least one parent who is a full-blooded Hopi, or that both of his or her parents be half-blooded Hopis. If you are helping a client prepare to petition for membership, you (or your client) can obtain the names, addresses, and telephone numbers of the more than 500 federally-recognized tribes from the Bureau of Indian Affairs Tribal Enrollment Division; call 202/208-3702. The length of the admissions process will depend on the particular tribe's constitution.

Indian Chestnut Bread - Cherokee/Choctaw Peel one pound of chestnuts and scale to take off the inside skin. Add enough cornmeal to hold chestnuts together, mixing chestnuts and cornmeal with boiling water. Wrap in green fodder or green corn shucks, tying each bun securely with white twine. Place in a pot of boiling water and cook until done

Indian Boy That Almost Turned Into A Bear - Passamaquoddy A Passamaquoddy boy was lost in the woods. He was hungry and scared. He goes into a hole; a bear was in there. He is scared and he comes out. The big bear was a female; she had little cubs with her, and when boy come out big bear come close to him, [and] now and then touch him but not want to hurt him, like make [i.e. like she was making] some motion [for] him [to] do something, but young fellow wouldn't move so bear went around him and started on ahead walkin. Then at last young fellow think, "I will go with it," and starts out with bear. Bear take him where she have cubs. Night time come, [and to] keep little fellow from freezin she put him together with cubs, and they don't eat nothing but berries that summer. When little fellow saw got to [i.e. that he'd have to] eat all winter he put stuff he gathered into den so [he] could eat, and so big bear know he want to eat and help him and got enough [for him] to eat all winter. So they went into den and stay all winter. Bear don't eat nothin. Spring time they come out and the bear would leave young fellow; course, young fellow go out, but too cold for him; he go back. Big bear would not leave her friend; he played with cub. In two years time the Indians discovered this big bear and the young feller, the young man, . . . . and he told them not to kill his mother. When they found him his breast had begun grow hair like a bear. Well, on account of this young man, bear got away; this young man tell her he seen them coming. Young man was wild, didn't want come home, tried to get away. When came to settlement they looked after him but he wanted [to] go back into the woods. [It] was about a year before he got civilized, and when he got civilized every bit of hair come out. And old people thinks, `If he stay one year more with bear he turn into a bear.' At last young man got married and his wife wanted some bear meat. They had deer, raccoon; he will kill any kind of meat. He kin tell [from a] den without digging it whether a female or a male bear inside how much smoke (steam) [rises from it; it is] more strong from female. He told them, "If you see that, keep away from it; that will (may) be my mother," and he wouldn't kill any female bear. And this young man he kill so many bear, this woman ask husband, "Why you not kill female? Might taste different." He didn't pay attention. Wife don't know his story; he keep that secret himself. And she coaxed him to kill female bear. At last wife got troubled he not kill female. "If you don't bring she bear, I won't live with you any longer." So he went out and kill female bear and brought her home and said, "Here it is. That will be last bear you eat. No more bear meat." And it was the last one, too. That young man didn't live much longer. He died. It worried him till he died. He couldn't think of nothin else but how he had killed his mother that had saved him in the woods.

I would like to thank you very much for this information Although I am a full blooded Cherokee and have many relatives living on and near the reservation in North Carolina I have never heard some these facts before. The stories you have passed on to all of us serve as a reminder as well as providing an education for us. Once again, thank you very much William Threerivers -----Original Message----- From: Blue Panther via <cherokee@rootsweb.com> To: cherokee <cherokee@rootsweb.com>; CherokeeChat <CherokeeChat@yahoogroups.com>; CherokeeMAINVillage <CherokeeMAINVillage@yahoogroups.com>; Dan Perry <runningtree@mediacombb.net>; indigenous_peoples_literature <indigenous_peoples_literature@yahoogroups.com>; littlewolfstraditions <littlewolfstraditions@yahoogroups.com>; Native_Village <Native_village@yahoogroups.com>; redroad <Tradition_OF_The_Redroad@yahoogroups.com> Sent: Mon, Aug 4, 2014 8:29 pm Subject: [Cherokee Circle] Important Dates in Cherokee History Important Dates in Cherokee History 1540 - The Spanish explorer, Hernando De Soto and his party are the first whites seen by the Cherokees. 1629 - The first traders from the English settlements began trading among the Cherokees. 1721 - The Cherokee Treaty with the Governor of the Carolinas is thought to be the first consession of land. 1785 - Treaty of Hopewell is the first treaty between the U.S. and the Cherokees. 1791 - Treaty of Holston signed. Includes a call for the U.S. to advance civilization of the Cherokees by giving them farm tools and technical advice. 1802 - Jefferson signs Goergia Compact. 1817 - Treaty makes exchange for land in Arkansas. Old settlers begin voluntary migration and establish a government there. In 1828, they are forced to move into Indian territory. 1821 - Sequoyah's Cherokee Syllabary completed, quickly leads to almost total literacy among the Cherokees. 1822 - Cherokee's Supreme Court established. 1824 - First written law of Western Cherokees. 1825 - New Echota, GA authorized as Cherokee capital. 1827 - Modern Cherokee Nation begins with Cherokee Constitution established by a convention; John Ross elected chief. 1828 - Cherokee Phoenix published in English and Cherokee; Andrew Jackson elected President. Gold discovered in Georgia. 1828-1830 - Georgia Legislature abolishes tribal government and expands authority over Cherokee country. 1832 - US Supreme Court decision Worcester vs Georgia establishes tribal sovereignty, protects Cherokees from Georgia laws. Jackson won't enforce decision and Georgia holds lottery for Cherokee lands. 1835 - Treaty Party signs Treaty of New Echota, giving up title to all Cherokee lands in southeast in exchange for land in Indian Territory (now Oklahoma.). 1838-1839 - Trails of Tears. US Government's forced removal of 17,000 Cherokees, in defiance of Supreme Court decision. More than 4,000 die from exposure and disease along the way. 1839 - Assassination of Treaty Party leaders, Major Ridge, John Ridge, and Elias Boudinot for breaking pact not to sign Treaty of New Echota. Factionalism continues until 1846. New constitution ratified at convention uniting Cherokees arriving from the east with those in the west. 1844 Cherokee Supreme Court building opens; Cherokee Advocate becomes the first newspaper in Indian territory. 1851 - Cherokee male and female seminaries open. Female seminary is the first secondary school for girls west of the Mississippi. 1859 - Original Keetoowah Society organized to maintain traditions and fight slavery. 1860 - Tension mounts between Union Cherokees and Confederate Cherokees. Civil War begins. 1861 - Treaty signed at Park Hill between Cherokee Nation and the Confederate government. Cherokee Nation torn by border warfare throughout the Civil War. 1865-1866 - Cherokee must negotiate peace with the US Government. New treaty limits tribal land rights, eliminates possibility of Cherokee State and is prelude to Dawes Commission. John Ross dies. 1887 - General Allotment Act passed; requires individual ownership of lands once held in common by Indian tribes. 1889 - Unassigned lands in Indian Territory opened by white settlers known as "boomers." 1890 - Oklahoma Territory organized out of western half of Indian Territory. 1893 - Cherokee Outlet opened for white settlers.Dawes Commission arrives. 1898 - Curtis Act passed abolishing tribal courts. 1903 - W.C. Rogers becomes last elected chief for 69 years. 1905 - Land allotment begins after official roll taken of Cherokees. 1907 - Oklahoma statehood combines Indian and Oklahoma Territories and dissolves tribal government. 1917 - William C. Rogers, the last Cherokee Chief, dies. 1934 - Indian Reorganization Act established a landbase for tribes and legal structure for self government. 1948 - Chief J.B.Milam calls Cherokee Convention; beginning of model tribal government of the Cherokee Nation. 1949 - W.W. Bill Keeler appointed chief by President Harry Truman. 1957 - First Cherokee National Holiday. 1961 - Cherokees awarded 15 million dollars by the US Claims Commission for Cherokee Outlet Lands. 1963 - Cherokee National Historical Society founded. CNHS opens Ancient Village, 1967; Trail of Tears Drama, 1969, and museum, 1975. 1967 - Cherokee Foundation formed to purchase land on which the tribal complex now sits. 1970 - U.S. Supreme Court ruling confirms Cherokee Nation ownership of bed and banks of 96 mile segment of Arkansas Riverbed. 1971 - W.W.Keeler becomes first elected principal chief since statehood. 1975 - Ross O. Swimmer elected to first of three terms as principal chief. First Cherokee Tribal Council elected Congress passes Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act. 1976 - Cherokee voters ratify new Constitution outlining tribal government. 1979 - Tribal offices moved into modern new complex South of Tahlequah. 1984 - First joint council meeting in 146 years between Eastern Band of Cherokees and Cherokee Nation held at Red Clay, TN. Council meetings now held bi-annually. 1987 - Wilma Mankiller makes history and draws international attention to tribe as first woman elected chief; Cherokee voters pass constitution amendment to elect council by districts in 1991. 1988 - Cherokee Nation joins Eastern Band in Cherokee, NC to commemorate beginning of The Trail of Tears. 1989 - The Cherokee Nation observes 150th anniversary of arrival in Indian Territory. "A New Beginning". 1990 - Chief Mankiller signs the historic self-governance agreement, making the Cherokee Nation one of six tribes to participate in the self-determination project. The project, which ran for three years beginning Oct.1 1990, authorized the tribe to assume tribal responsiblity for BIA funds which were formerly being spent on the tribe's behalf at the agency, area and central office levels. 1991 - In the July tribal election the first council to be elected by districts since statehood and Wilma Mankiller won second elected term as principal chief with a landslide 82% of the votes cast. 1995 - Joe Byrd and Garland Eagle elected principal chief and deputy chief which marks the first time in nearly 200 years that full blood bilingual leaders occupy the top positions of the Cherokee Nation. ======*====== List archives http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/index?list=cherokee ------------------------------- To unsubscribe from the list, please send an email to CHEROKEE-request@rootsweb.com with the word 'unsubscribe' without the quotes in the subject and the body of the message

Incidents Of Personal Heroism – Cherokee In the Cherokee war of 1760 when small bodies of the enemy, according to Haywood, were pushing, their inroads eastward almost to Salisbury, a party of six or eight warriors was discovered, watched, and followed until they were seen to enter a deserted cabin to pass the night. The alarm was given, and shortly before daylight the whites surrounded the house, posting themselves behind the fodder stack and some outbuildings so as to command both the door and the wide chimney top, They then began to throw fire upon the roof to drive out the Indians, when, as the blaze caught the dry shingles, and death either by fire or bullet seemed certain, one of the besieged warriors called to his companions that it was better that one should be a sacrifice than that all should die, and that if they would follow his directions he would save them, but die himself. He proposed to sally out alone to draw the fire of the besiegers, while his friends stood ready to make for the woods as soon as the guns of the whites were empty. They agreed, and the door was opened, when he suddenly rushed forth, dodging and running in a zigzag course, so that every gun was emptied at him before he fell dead, covered with wounds. While the whites were reloading, the other warriors ran out and succeeded in reaching the woods before the besiegers could recover from their surprise. The historian adds, "How greatly it is to be regretted that the name of this hero is not known to the writer, that it might be recorded with this specimen of Cherokee bravery and patriotism, firmness and presence of mind in the hour of danger."[1] More than once women seem to have shown the courage of warriors when the occasion demanded. At the beginning of the last century there was still living among the Cherokee a woman who had killed her husband's slayer in one of the Revolutionary engagements. For this deed she was treated with so much consideration that she was permitted to join the warriors in the war dance, carrying her gun and tomahawk. The Wahnenauhi manuscript has a tradition of an attack upon a Cherokee town and the killing of the chief by a hostile war party. His wife, whose name was Cuhtahlatah (Gatûñ'lätï, "Wild-hemp"?), on seeing her husband fall, snatched up his tomahawk, shouting, "Kill! Kill!" and rushed upon the enemy with such fury that the retreating Cherokee rallied and renewed the battle with so great courage as to gain a complete victory. This may be a different statement of the same incident. In Rutherford's expedition against the Cherokee, in 1776, the Indians made a stand near Waya gap, in the Nantahala mountains, and a hard-fought engagement took place, with a loss to the Americans of nineteen men, although the enemy was finally driven from the ground. After the main body had retreated, an Indian was seen looking out from behind a tree, and was at once shot and killed by the soldiers, who, on going to the spot, found that it was a woman, painted and stripped like a warrior and armed with bow and arrows. She had already been shot through the thigh, and had therefore been unable to flee with the rest. Myths of the Cherokee by James Mooney. From the Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology 1897-98, Part I. [1900] and is now in the public domain.

On The Role Of Creation And Origin Myths In The Development Of Inca State And Religion Tarmo Kulmar The article will focus on material on two ancient Peruvian cultures, Tiahuanaco, which according to the Peruvian archaeological periodisation belongs to the sc. Middle Horizon (approx. 700-1100 AD) and the Inca culture, called also Tahuantinsuyu after the country of the sc. Late Horizon (I part of the 13th century - 1532). The ruins of Tiahuanaco city and centre of worship are located on the Altiplano in today's Bolivia, ca 4000 m from water level, and 21 km north-east from Lake Titicaca. Tiahuanaco was a capital of a theocratic state governed by priest kings. The state exerted its influence on the development of the whole southern part of Peru in the closing centuries of the last millennium, expanding its influence in a peaceful manner on the vast highland as well as coastal territory. Tiahuanaco, therefore, carried out a pacifistic cultural mission quite different from that of its contemporary militant country of Huari (Wari) in the Peruvian Andes. The religious sources of this period are first and foremost archaeological findings, but to a great extent also the recordings of the 16th century chroniclers. The religion of Tiahuanaco centred around the cult of a sky and thunder god Viracocha. The deity was generally depicted as having staves in both of his hands and an aureole around his head. The aureole suggests the qualities of a sun god, represented on the bas- relief in the upper part of the famous Sun Gate in Tiahuanaco as well as on ceramic. The staves, on the other hand, suggest Viracocha's distant ancestry from the nearly thousand years older Chavín sky god in North Peru. His attendants were ranking deities in the shapes of cougar, condor, falcon and snake. Viracocha was worshipped as the main god in Huari as well; there his characteristics were apparently more militant. A head of Tiahuanaco state functioned both as a king and the arch-priest and he was revered as Viracocha's embodiment on earth (Kelm 1990: 524-528). The chronicle records describe the citizens of Tiahuanaco as «the Viracochas», who were fair-skinned and wore white long robes. Viracocha is also described as a man with fair skin and white beard, attired in a long robe and sandals, wearing a staff, with a cougar lying at his feet. He was a kind and peace-loving god who had also subjected the dreadful jaguar-god to his power. The idea might refer to the Tiahuanaco's peaceful mission among the distant warrior cultures of Peru. According to the legend, however, evil people in short clothes came to the sacred lake and forced Viracocha to leave to north. On his departure they mocked and taunted him for his long robe and lenient disposition. Eventually, he had descended from the highlands to the coast and left over the ocean, promising to return some day (Séjourné 1992: 215, 258). In 1921 one of the leading researchers of Peruvian cultures from the first part of this century José de la Riva Agüero y Osma, who had also studied the chronicle records as well as linguistic and archaeological data for nearly 25 years, published his «theory of the paleo-Quechuan empire». The theory focused on the hypothesis that Tiahuanaco was originally the cradle and home of the Inca Empire, and the Inca themselves the upper class of the once emigrated Tiahuanaco people. He also argued that the Quechuans, Aymarans and Araucanians had to originate from the same ancient and anthropologically close ancestral nation who spoke a language related to theirs, and was developed to a degree that could influence them, the younger peoples. Riva-Agüero's term for such ancestors was 'paleo-Quechuans' (Busto I s.a.: 186-194). Even today the Aymarans inhabit the surroundings of Lake Titicaca. They have preserved heritage on their ancient migration and the subjugation of the town people who were driven from the city. Also, the archaeological data supports the idea of the late arrival of the Aymarans. Riva-Agüero speculates that the paleo-Quechuans were now forced to leave among other places for the Cuzco Valley, the later settlement of the Inca. A chronicler informs us that the first king of the Inca Manco Capac came from Tiahuanaco (Vega 1988: 34-37). We also know that the relationship between the Quechuans and the Aymarans could be characterised by a constant feud which might have been caused by the fugitives' anger towards the invaders. Agüero also argues that the affinity of the Quechuan and Aymaran languages is due to the existence of a common primal language, possibly the paleo- Quechuan. The archaeological data also confirms the Aymaran immigration. The chullpa's, or the burial towers around Titicaca belonged supposedly to the Aymarans; still, the earliest settlers of Tiahuanaco mummified their dead similarly to the Inca, similarities could be found also between the pottery from the golden age of Tiahuanaco and that of the Inca - the ceramic ware of Aymarans is considerably different. The clothing of the Aymarans differed as well, being shorter than the Quechuan dress, which once again supports the legend about the departure of the long-robed Tiahuanacos. Montesinos, the chronicler, informs us that the priest kings of Tiahuanaco, or los amautas as they were called, fled the country trying to save the cult of their own gods (Busto I s.a.: 191). This is another evidence proving that the Inca originated from the upper class who were forced to leave Tiahuanaco by the militant Aymarans, or los piruas. The idea of the Inca having been militant aroused from the new circumstances. The Inca regarded the surroundings of Titicaca as their former home and revered Viracocha as a god who had told them to build the city of Cuzco. Later, the mythology related to Viracocha acquired an important role in the Inca religion. Thus, we might reason that the founders of the Tiahuanaco culture were the common ancestors of the Quechuans and Aymarans, i.e. the paleo-Quechuans. Presumably, the militant Aymarans crushed Tiahuanaco in the 10th-11th century and forced the majority of the upper class flee northward to the mountain valleys inhabited by other Quechuan kin tribes. The Aymarans could not destroy the powerful civilization all at once and founded the kingdom of Colla, which in the 15th century was incorporated into the state of the same Inca who were once driven from their homeland by the Collas. Thus, the hypothesis of Riva-Agüero expanded to a theory which is acknowledged by most of the historians in Peru. Consequently, the Inca were the genetic and cultural successors of the Tiahuanaco people. According to the archaeological data these Quechuan emigrants arrived at their kin tribes in the Cuzco Valley at the beginning of the 12th century and founded their city-state on the spot. Since 1538 the Inca ruler Pachacutek Yupanqui employed the necessity of defeating the militant Chancas, subjugated other Quechuan city-states and merged them into the empire that reigned the whole of Peru, northern Chile, northern Bolivia and southern Ecuador until the invasion of Spanish conquistadors. The archaeological material for the religion of this period is abundant, and can be compared to the detailed accounts of the 16th-17th century Spanish chronicles (Kauffmann Doig 1991: 78). The highest ranking deity of the Inca was a celestial supreme being who was first known under the name Viracocha, later also as Pachacamak. Originally, Pachacamak was a sky god of the Lurín Valley in central Peru whose name was later given to the sky god of the Inca. The main god of the Inca state religion was the sun god Inti, who might have been a nature totem of the Quechua or a god of a certain tribe. Another significant deity in the Inca pantheon was the thunder god Illapu who was apparently distinctive from the Tiahuanaco sky god, but was named after a thunder god of the central Peruvian tribes. Viracocha became the culture hero of the Inca who was said to have brought culture to people, then set off to the Pacific and promised to return. (Kulmar 1999: 101-109). The Inca myths can be divided in two groups - the creation myths and the origin myths. 1. Briefly about creation myths The world was created by Viracocha near Lake Titicaca. After the great deluge or the receding of chaotic floodwaters Viracocha descended to earth and created plants, animals and men to the empty land; he built the city of Tiahuanaco and appointed 4 world rulers of whom Manco Capak became the superior of the Ursa Major world, i.e. the north horizon (Busto II 1981: 7). 2. Briefly about origin myths 2.1. Myths about the Ayar brothers Four pairs of brothers-sisters created by Viracocha to rule the world left the cave of Mountain Pacaritambo. The whole world was living in an uncivilised and ignorant manner. The newcomers began with organising the mankind and divided people into ten large communities. Leading the tribes the brothers set off in search of enough fertile land to sustain themselves. They carried Sunturpaucar, a long staff adorned with colourful feathers, a cage with a sun-bird who could give good advice and other sacred objects in front of them. Making shorter and longer stops they moved towards Cuzco. In the course of the long journey the group became smaller: the rivalling brothers confined one of their companions to a cave, two others wished to break away but were turned into stones. The only surviving brother Ayar Manco a.k.a. Manco Capak accompanied by his sister and wife Mama Ocllo and his brothers' wives, founded the city of World Pole in the name of Viracocha the Creator and Inti the Sun God, and settled there with his people. 2.2. A myth of Manco Capak and Mama Ocllo A long time ago when the world was filled with savages, misery and poverty, a brother and a sister, a married couple Manco Capak and Mama Ocllo left Lake Titicaca. Inti, the sun god had sent them to refine the surrounding peoples, and gave them a golden stick for testing the land for cultivation and then settling in the suitable place. Having found such a place they had to found the state, teach the people how to live proper lives and advocate the worship of the sun god. The journey took a long time. Eventually, in the Cuzco Valley the golden stick disappeared into the ground, and they could start with their mission. Manco Capak taught his people the cultivation and irrigation of land and handicraft, Mama Ocllo taught women spinning, weaving and sewing. The tribe of Manco Capak became to be called by the name of Hanan Cuzco (High Cuzco) and the relatives of Mama Ocllo by the name of Hurin Cuzco (Lower Cuzco). The city and the state was founded in the name of Viracocha and Inti the sun god, also the Sun Temple was built in Cuzco (Busto II 1981: 10- 17). How to interpret the myths? María Rostworowski de Díez Canseco argues that the creation of the Inca state is introduced already in the creation myths (Rostworowski 1988: 31-34). Although originally they seemed to function as creation stories about Tiahuanaco culture, they were later apparently customised by the Inca for ideological purposes. The origin of the Inca from the cultural centre around Lake Titicaca has been supported by archaeological data. Editing seems most apparent in accounts of introducing the first legendary ruler Manco Capak, on the one hand, and in dividing the world in four parts, on the other. The Inca state Tahuantinsuyu was also divided into four large provinces ruled by governors. Recent customisation is even more apparent in the origin myths. Today's scholars argue that both the myth of the Ayar brothers as well as the myth about Manco Capak comes from the same source, whereas the former is older and less edited, the latter more recent and also more edited. Both versions say that the main character Ayar Manco or Manco Capak had arrived from south and settled in the Cuzco Valley. The part of the story suggests the Tiahuanaco origin of the Inca as well as the flight of the Quechuan elite from the Aymaran invaders. Leaving Lake Titicaca could serve as a hypothesis that the home of the Inca was located on the Isle of Sun (La Isla del Sol) in Lake Titicaca - according to archaeologists it might have been one of the residences of the upper class Tiahuanaco people. The hypothesis would also explain why Manco Capak was sent by the sun god, as the island became to be called the Isle of Sun only after the sun worship had become the Inca state religion. In the original version the brothers are sent to refine people by Viracocha, which suggests even the earlier modification of the story from the time when Viracocha was revered as the main god. The four pairs of brothers-sisters in the original version refers to the four Quechuan tribes who left Tiahuanaco. The married couple consisting of a brother and a sister, in its turn, could be explained by the fact that the Quechuan tribe was exogamous and consisted of two fraterias: in exogamous societies men belong to one frateria and women to another. This could be inferred also from the myth version concerning the division of Cuzco in two - the High and Lower fraterias. The disposing of all the other Ayar brothers on the journey in the original version refers either to their settling to different places or the feud between the tribes of Manco and the rest of his brothers. Different accounts confirm that the Inca led to the Cuzco Valley by Manco Capak had to drive local tribes from the land in order to establish themselves there. People from the droughty Altiplano had to search for humid soils necessary for cultivating corn. Therefore, Manco's golden stick was supposed to point to the land where corn could be grown. For settling in the new place a fight was put up, and we all know the outcome of the attack. In fact, chronicler Sarmiento do Gamboa's expression «gloomy and fertile» might refer to the gory battles fought for the fertile valley. Both versions end with the account of building the city by Manco in the name of Viracocha the Creator and Inti the sun god. The former was originally the sky god of the ancient Tiahuanaco people, whose cult was later abandoned. Inti, on the other hand, was the tribal deity of the Inca who later became the highest ranking god in the pantheon. The fact that in the later version the instigator of refining people was Inti, and also that a temple to the sun god was first erected in Cuzco suggests that the journey from Altiplano to the Cuzco Valley must have taken a long time, at least a couple of centuries (archaeological data supports the fact that Tiachuanaco was destroyed by the Aymarans in the 10th century, and the Inca reached the Cuzco Valley at the end of the 12th century). Thus, during this period one deity was substituted for another: Viracocha became dues otiosus, Inti, on the other hand became so popular that the first temple was built for him. As I mentioned before, the supreme god was given a new name - Pachacamak. From then on, Viracocha was associated with the myth of a culture hero, because: the fact that the Tiachuanaco people had spread the cult of Viracocha widely in Peru was never forgotten; the sc. civilisational emigration of the Inca really did take place; the abandoning of the sky god's cult is reflected by the account of Viracocha's set-off to the ocean; Viracocha's promise to return refers to the fact that the sky god's cult never really disappeared, and in greatest troubles the Inca still addressed their sky god, as is common for deus otiosus (Kulmar 1999: 101-109). Thus, Manco Capak who supposedly ruled the Inca at the time of their arrival at the Cuzco Valley, became the first half-legendary ruler of the country and started the official Inca dynasty. Certainly, he was nothing more than a tribal chief - it took another two centuries for the Inca civilisation to reach its golden era under the rule of the first emperor Pachacutek Yupanqui (Busto II 1981: 22). The founding of city in the name of two gods could be interpreted in a manner uniquely provident and theocratic for the history of the Andean state Tahuantinsuyu: the supreme god Viracocha had provided that Manco's tribe will rule the world, and Manco started to carry it out at the will and guidance of Inti, the sun god. Thus, the civilisational mission of the Inca found a theological explanation as well (see also Soriano 1990: 483-499). Finally, these origin myths also reveal the ethnocentric world-view of the Quechuans: the Inca believed in the inherent superiority and wisdom of their own people, thinking they were destined to refine the mankind whether other peoples accepted it or not. That could be inferred also from the names of the country and its capital. The name of the Inca empire Tahuantinsuyu stands for «the country of four points of compass» (Vega 1988: 17). Most chroniclers (except for Sarmiento) argue that Cuzco means «pole» (Busto II 1981: 8), i.e. the centre of the world or the world pole. The analysis of the history and society of the Inca state has confirmed that it was the first and only totalitarian state on the American continent and Pre-Columbian America (Kulmar 1989: 74-76; Soriano 1990: 483-499). The ethnocentric and imperialist origin myth formed the ideological foundation for establishing such a scheme of society, determining also the mentality of its nation by education and in everyday life. Thus, the Inca built their historical studies and regulations on the ancient Tiahuanaco myths, having customised them according to their own need. http://haldjas.folklore.ee/folklore/vol12/inca.htm

"In the old days the beasts, birds, fishes, insects and plants could all talk and they and the people lived together in peace and friendship. But as time went on the people increased so rapidly that... the poor animals found themselves beginning to be cramped for room. ... Man .. begin to slaughter the larger animals... for their flesh or skins, while the smaller creatures,, were crushed.. So the animals resolved to consult upon measures for their common safety. The Bears were the first to meet in council... and the old White Bear Chief presided. After each in turn had complained of the way in which Man killed their friends.. it was decided to begin war at once against him. .. But when everything was ready and the first Bear stepped up to make the trial it was found that.. his long claws.. spoiled the shot.. someone suggested that they might trim his claws .. the old White Bear, objected, saying it was necessary that they should have long claws. No one could think of any better plan so the old Chief dismissed the council and the Bears dispersed.. without having concerted any way to prevent the increase of the human race... The Deer next held council under the chief, the Little Deer, and after some talk decided to send rheumatism to every hunter who should kill one of them unless he took care to ask their pardon for the offense... Next cane the Fishes and Reptiles, who had their own complaints against Man. They held their council together and determined to make victims dream... Finally the Birds Insects and smaller animals came together ..the grubworm was chief of the council. It was decided that each in turn should give an opinion, and then they would vote on the question as to whether or not man was guilty. Seven votes should be enough to condemn him. When the Plants, who were friendly to man heard what had been done by the animals, they determined to defeat the latter's evil designs, Each tree, shrub and herb, down even to the grasses and mosses, agreed to furnish a cure for someone of the diseased named, and each said: " I shall appear to help man when he calls upon me in his need" Thus came medicine. A Cherokee's concept of Nun-wa-ti, medince, is likely to include comtacting a greater power for aid. Cherokee medicine involved home remedies and asking the medicine man for advise and treatment. Cherokee medicine had an additional aspect: the interrelationship of religion and medicine. Some remedies were probably widely known and used by the people. Various plants called "snakeroot" were known to be a cure for snakebite. Some of the lichens became known as blood leather from their use in stopping the flow of blood from wounds. If a person worked too hard he might make a poultice of the seven-bark hydrangea to ease the aches and pains. When the home treatment did not effect a cure a medicine man was called. He was available to help in cases that were more serious, or prolonged than usual. He had the special talents and knowledge for finding, preparing, and administering that proper remedy. A clever medicine man know when a complaint wasnt a psychical illness but rather a lack of attention from others. He inspired confidence and applied the salve of attention to the wounded ego. James Mooney was skeptical of the medicinal properties of the plants used. He compared a list of twenty Cherokee medicinal plants with those listed in the pharmaceutical directory of the day, Untied States Dispenstory. He found twenty-five percent of the Cherokee plants were used as the dispensatory recommended. Another sixty percent were either not listed or were used incorrectly according to the dispensatory. The rest of the medicinal plants were used in ways that were difficult to judge correct or incorrect form the dispensatory. When faced with a very difficult case the medicine man involved his patient in the specific rituals and prayers. Some of these prayers, the Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees, have come to us mainly from A-Yun-i-ni, the Swimmer. Swimmer gave a list of some ninety formulas, written in the characters of the Sequoyah syllabary, to James Mooney. Source: CHEROKEE PLANTS their uses-- a 400 year history. By Paul B Hamel and Mary U Chiltoskey

From: runningtree Sent: Sunday, August 10, 2014 8:37 AM To: Undisclosed-Recipient:; Subject: AC Chuckle – chuckle. The Goldberg Brothers - The Inventors of the Automobile Air Conditioner Here's a little fact for automotive buffs, or just to dazzle your friends. The four Goldberg brothers, Lowell, Norman, Hiram, and Max, invented and developed the first automobile air-conditioner. On July 17, 1946 , the temperature in Detroit was 97 degrees. The four brothers walked into old man Henry Ford's office and sweet-talked his secretary into telling him that four gentlemen were there with the most exciting innovation in the auto industry since the electric starter. Henry was curious and invited them into his office. They refused and instead asked that he come out to the parking lot to their car. They persuaded him to get into the car, which was about 130 degrees, turned on the air conditioner, and cooled the car off immediately. The old man got very excited and invited them back to the office, where he offered them $3 million for the patent. The brothers refused, saying they would settle for $2 million, but they wanted the recognition by having a label, 'The Goldberg Air-Conditioner,' on the dashboard of each car in which it was installed. Now old man Ford was more than just a little anti-Jewish, and there was no way he was going to put the Goldberg's name on two million Fords. They haggled back and forth for about two hours and finally agreed on $4 million and that just their first names would be shown. And so to this day, all Ford air conditioners show -- Lo, Norm, Hi, and Max -- on the controls. Now, just control yourself and forward it on . No virus found in this message. Checked by AVG - www.avg.com Version: 2014.0.4716 / Virus Database: 4007/8009 - Release Date: 08/09/14

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In The Name Of His Ancestor Tell me, mother, what is keeping my father away so late to-night? The traps, the beaver traps, my son. You know in these wintry moons when his fur is smooth and soft the beaver can hear from afar the crack of the tiniest twig, can see as far as you, and can scent, oh -- I was going to say almost as far as he can see. One of these days you will accompany your father with the traps, and then you will no longer wonder why he has to work so long over them. Come, sit here with me on the buffalo robe before the light of this blaze. Now put your feet close up to the fire, but take care not to burn your moccasins. Ooh, mother, how the wigwam is shaking! Is Nutenwi, the wind, angry? Do not fear, my son. But hark, listen to the voices of the trees, our grandparents! It snows, it is growing cold, and the night blackens. Lonely out in the dark stand our grandparents. Now Nutenwi, the wind, is passing among them; and so, bowing together their heads, they are wailing one to another how cold, how lonely, and how sad they are. Their voices are not so full of mirth as in the warm summer moons, when the whip-poor-will, resting upon their shoulders, sings to them songs of the ripening corn. Hish, listen, my son! Do you hear one moaning out slowly, "Ketona! Ketona!"? It is Mitwiwa, mother, the old cottonwood down by the spring. I wonder why he should be calling me on a night like this? Perhaps it is not you he is calling. It may be that the Chipiya, the spirit of the ancestor after whom you are named, is walking forth this night, revisiting the lodges of his people. If so, then it is he old Mitwiwa is calling by name. Does old Mitwiwa know as much about Ketona as my father? As you, mother? Yes, and more. He was the one who long ago -- do tell me about him again, will you, mother? Lay your head down upon my lap then. You are now eight winters of age. One morning, a moon after you were born, when it was beginning to whiten in the Wabeneki, in the land of the dawn, your father brought Tacumisawa into our wigwam. Tacumisawa, you know, is still the chief of the Eagles, our gens. Shortly after, there came other Eagles, until thirty, perhaps forty, of them were seated in a circle within the lodge. I sat over in a corner among the women and the children, holding you in my lap. After the priests had chanted prayers to Gisha Munetoa, and your father had done serving turkey, venison, and corn to the guests, there fell a silence so quiet in the lodge that we could hear one another breathe. And like the mist that was rising that morning from our brook down there under the hill, lifted the smoke from the long red-stone pipes of the men, floating in slowly-whirling rings and in tiny clouds up through the opening in the top of the wigwam. Tacumisawa had long been watching the smoke. By and by he gently laid aside his pipe and, in a tone as low as mine is now, said to us all: "My brother and my sister Eagles, Gisha Munetoa is looking down upon us. The Eagles who have lived before us are listening. I name this child, Ketona. Hear, and let me tell you why." And then he went on with the story you have heard over and again from your father. Now all the events of that story happened winters and winters ago in our old Rock River country, far away off in the land of the North. The bitterest foes of our nation then were the Sioux, men of the long nose, hooked like the beak of a hawk. Coming again and again from the country beyond the Mississippi, they tried to drive us away from the Rock River; but finding that they were losing too many scalps, and feeling after each fight that the hearts of our men and of our women were growing stronger and braver, they finally decided that it was better to remain on the western side of the Mississippi. At sunrise of a morning after the Sioux had been driven over the Great River, four of their men appeared on the bluffs of the eastern bank within sight of our lodges. Even while the runners were yelling the alarm fifteen men had started at the top of their speed toward the bluffs to kill or to capture the hated foe. But when the four Sioux lifted high their left hands, and pressed their right over their hearts, and after the old men down in the village yelled, "Messengers of peace! Messengers of peace! Let them alone! Let them come!" the men halted and unwillingly returned to their lodges. Then the runners went part way out to beckon and to escort the Sioux in. When the strangers drew near, certain old men met them and shook hands. The Sioux at once asked to meet the chiefs and head men in Council, because they claimed to have had a message of great import from their nation. Powashik was our chief in those days. After he had called his head men together in his lodge, he sent a runner to fetch in the messengers. When they came and seated themselves by the entrance way, Powashik filled four pipes with sacred tobacco, rolled a live coal into the bowl of each, and then handed a pipe to each of the Sioux. You have seen buzzards sitting on the limb of a tree, how their heads droop, and how still and stiff are their bodies. That was the way the Sioux were sitting as they smoked our sacred pipes, their blankets pulled tightly about their waists and over their shoulders. And when they were done smoking, they rose one after the other and spoke like this: "Our nation sends us to you with this message. Once upon a time our young men married your young women, and your young men married our young women. We went to war together, and we were friends, close friends. We want to see the days when all these things happened come back again. So let us stop fighting. Winter will soon be here, and neither of us have laid in our buffalo meat. Our messengers will shake hands with you. Shake hands with them, and we will make ready a great feast at our village, two days' journey by canoe up the river. And we would ask you to come to the feast and rejoice with us, because we are once more friends." Powashik and the old men went out, leaving the Sioux alone in the lodge. Many were so glad at heart that they were for shaking hands with the messengers at once; but some, who in their younger days had won the scalp-lock and eagle feather in wars with the Sioux, shook their heads and counselled against haste. But Powashik was old and gray. He was tired of war. Like most of the old men, he believed in what the Sioux had told him, so went in and shook hands with them. He told them to say to their nation that his heart was glad, that he wished the things they wished, and that he and many of his head men would go to the feast. In the morning, the people thronged the shore and the bluffs of the Mississippi to watch Powashik and twenty of his counselors depart for the village of the Sioux. The old chief and a few of the older men who were weak with the paddle were in their newest buckskins, wore black-tipped eagle feathers on their scalp-locks, and hung beaded and bear-claw necklaces about their necks. They took no war-club, no bow, no arrow, no kind of weapon whatever, because Gisha Munetoa had bade our people long ago never to have these things about them when on a mission of peace. But instead of these things, they had in the canoes tobacco, buckskins, and eagle feathers, all presents of peace to be given to the Sioux at the feast. And the people kept watching the canoes till the last turned the big bend far up the river. On the evening of the second day before it had begun to grow dark in earnest, Ketona, a young man of twenty winters who had gone to help paddle his father's canoe, was seen coming toward the village. As he drew near, men, women, and children pressed round about him, eager to know about the feast. But when they saw that his leggins and moccasins were torn and spattered with mud, that his naked body and arms had been gashed by thorns and briers, and when they noticed that he hung his head and made no reply, and was making straight for his lodge, they all stopped and gazed after him with mouths wide open. Old men leaning upon their canes crossed fore-fingers over the lips, and, shaking their heads, murmured one to another, "Something bad! Something bad!" As Ketona sat with legs crossed before the fire in his lodge and stared into the flickering blaze with eyes gleaming like those of a panther at bay, his mother stepped softly near, and, fearing she would hear something bad, asked, "My son! My son! What has happened? Why these deep scratches on your body? How came these leggins, these moccasins, to be so yellow with mud?" Ketona kept looking steadily into the fire, while the eyes of his mother were overflowing with tears. Then she put before him on a mat some dried venison and a wooden bowl with corn in it, and begged: "Eat, my son. You look tired and hungry. Eat all you want. There is plenty left for your father. Tell me, when will he be home?" Ketona beckoned his mother to sit down beside him. "My father," he began in an undertone, "will never come home again. His scalp, and that of old Powashik, and of all who went away yesterday morning, are hanging to-night in the lodges of the Sioux. I am the only one to escape. My heart is too sick to tell you how as we turned in shore last evening to camp, the Sioux pounced upon us as quickly as a hawk upon a dove; how my father yelled to me then, 'Dive, my son! Dive!'; and how, shortly after, when I raised my head above water among the tall reeds under the bank, I saw two men standing proudly over my father's body, one with a tomahawk that had crushed in his skull, the other with a knife that had just taken off his scalp. Do not weep, mother. Be brave. Go tell the people the little I have told you. The rest, they will know later. Tell them not to fear, for the Sioux are far off now on their way to the North into the land of the wild rice. Wait, mother. Give me your right hand. As sure as I am a Red-Earth, as sure as I am an Eagle, and as sure as I am your son, I will see our nation and you and me avenged." The runners took up the message of the mother and carried it from lodge to lodge. When the women heard it, they gasped, and, for a time, were speechless. By and by, slowly gathering their cloaks about their waists and over their heads, they slipped softly out of the wigwams; and each going to a lonely spot in the forest or on the bluffs of the river, there prayed in silence to Gisha Munetoa. But the men on hearing the news said never a word. Some of them straightened up, clinched their fists, and gritted their teeth. Two moons had come and gone, and the snow lay deep on the hills, in the valleys, and in the forest. One night Nutenwi, the wind, roared and the snow fell deeper than ever. Even though the snow had banked almost half way up the lodges, yet in the morning rumor flew through all the village that Ketona and fifty young men were missing, gone no one knew whither. Each of those fifty young men had slipped from his wigwam as a fox from his lair, so that even the nearest kinsman did not know when he had gone. Runners slid over the country far and wide upon snow-shoes, but they could find nowhere the faintest sign of a trail. That was a bitter winter for our nation. Day and night the women wept, and the men were sick at heart. It was hard enough to lose the old men, but what will become of our nation, they thought, if we must lose our young men, too? But the men and the women were mindful that they were Red-Earth people, and so waited patiently for the day when their young men would return. And they did return, but not till the snow was melting and the ice was floating in the rivers. Forty of them came home. And the light of day was never so bright as on the afternoon when the forty were seen coming in single file down the bluffs of the river toward the village. And as they came on, men and boys rushed whooping from all the lodges, and, gathering round the young men, accompanied them home. All the while, the women, the girls, and the little children waited in groups before their lodges, their hearts glad, their faces beaming, and all of them proud at seeing long, black scalps dangling like horse-tails from the belts of the young warriors. In the night a fire was kindled from a pile of logs in front of old Powashik's lodge. The scalp-pole was set up, and on it were hung the scalps of the Sioux. And all around within the firelight sat the men, the women, and the children, all wrapped snugly in blankets. Then back and forth and around the pole danced the young men, stepping to the time of the drum and of the war songs sung by the old warriors. Now and again was a pause in the dance long enough for one to tell a short story of how he had taken a scalp. And when he was done speaking, the chief of his gens amid the whoops of the old warriors stepped up and gave him an eagle feather. Last of all to speak was Ketona himself. He told how he and the others had slipped into the land of the Sioux, how they had slain warriors and ripped off their scalps before the very eyes of their women, and how they had not let up pursuing the Sioux till they had more than avenged the death of Powashik and that of those slain with him. And when the people saw Ketona standing there in the light of the blaze, holding in his right hand the scalps of the two Sioux who had slain his father, and in the left was holding the knife he had plunged into their hearts and had used to rip off their scalps, they breathed easier and felt that they were beginning to be avenged. Such, my son, is the story of Ketona as Tacumisawa told it on the morning he gave you your name. And I remember so well when closing he said to us all: "Now, my brother and my sister Eagles, now that this Eaglet may be brave and do valiant deeds to make him forever remembered by his people, I name him Ketona. And when he is old enough to know this story, this war story of the Eagles, may he wish to be like the Ketona who winters ago leading fifty young braves avenged the death of his father and of the leaders of his nation." When Tacumisawa was done, your father stepped over to where I was and took you from me. He handed you to Tacumisawa, who stood you on your wabbling legs, your back against his breast. Then rose all the Eagles, the men first; and as they filed past you out of the lodge, they stopped long enough to shake gently this little right hand of yours. Hish, mother! Yes, my son, that is the tramp of your father's footstep.

In The Beginning – Inuit Before the dawn of time there were no people on earth. There were no animals, no birds, and no fish. There was nothing but ice and snow and the Great Western Sea. One day Old-Man-Father-of-Fish looked about the empty land. All he saw was snow, miles and miles of ice and snow. He sat by the water and looked at the gray rocks along the shore. Then he looked out at the Great Western Sea, sparkling under the morning sun. "There should be creatures to fill this sea," he sai "Creatures that swim and jump and dive about in the wave Creatures that will feed the people-yet-to-be." He sat on a rock and he thought and he thought. Then Old-Man-Father-of-Fish took out his knife and t began to whittle on a piece of driftwood. All day long I carved and he whittled, sending chip after chip flying into the sea. "On-ja-ja-ja," he sang. The chips began to squirm. "Ja-ja-ja-ja," he chanted. The chips began to twist. "On-ja-ja-ja," he cried. The chips turned into wiggling, squirming, fish. "From henceforth you shall be Salmon," said Old-Mar Father-of-Fish. Away swam Salmon far out into the waters of the Great Western Sea and disappeared under the rolling waves. All night long Old-Man-Father-of-Fish carved and h whittled, sending chip after chip into the sea. "On-ja-ja-ja," he sang. The chips began to wiggle. "Ja-ja-ja-ja," he chanted. The chips began to squirm. "On-ja-ja-ja," he cried. The chips turned into more fish. "Henceforth you shall be Char, and you," he said, "shall be Cod." Char dived deep beneath the great blue waters and hi among the rocks. Cod swam far out to sea. All summer long Old-Man-Father-of-Fish sat on his rock and he carved. All winter long Old-Man-Father-of-Fish sat on his rock and he whittled. As he sat and as he whittled, chip after chip went flying into the sea. There they turned into fish. "You shall be Halibut. You shall be Lumpsucker. And you," he said, "shall be Capelin." On and on he went, carving and whittling and naming fish after fish. When all the fish were created and all the fish were named, Old-Man- Father-of-Fish stood up and threw the last piece of driftwood out to sea, far out beyond the rolling waves. "On-ja-ja-ja," he sang. "Ja-ja-ja-ja," he chanted. "You shall be the largest of all the creatures. "I name you Whale." And that is how Old-Man-Father-of-Fish filled the ocean with food for the people-yet-to-be. Taken from On the Trail Made of Dawn - Native American Creation Stories Retold by M. L. Webster

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In the beginning - Africa When the Creator made the Earth he commanded a great snake to gather the material together with his huge coils. This gave the Earth its shape, so that people and all manner of birds and beasts could live upon it. This Ancient Snake erected four pillars: North, South, East and West and his coils keep the pillars upright. These pillars hold up the heavens. The Ancient Snake has skins of black, white and red that he puts on for night, daylight and twilight. In the beginning, the ancient snake found only stagnant water on earth, so he shaped out courses for the streams and channels for the rivers and thus the world received life. And when Ancient Snake carried the Creator through the new world, mountains appeared wherever they stopped. When the Creator finished his work, he saw there were too many mountains, trees and large animals for the earth to carry alone. So he asked Ancient Snake to coil himself up and hold his tail in his mouth and so support the earth. The Creator then told Red Colobus Monkey to feed Ancient Snake whenever he got hungry. Today, the Ancient Snake still sustains the earth. But every so often, Ancient Snake shifts his position to relieve and ache or an itch and in doing so creates earthquakes. Should Red Colobus Monkey ever fail to feed Ancient Snake, the snake's hunger would force him to eat his own tail. If this ever happens, the earth will slide into the ocean and that will be the end of our world. (From tribe of Dahomey in Central Africa) >From the book , When lion could fly :and other tales from Africa told by Nick Greaves ; illustrated by Rod Clement. Publisher Hauppauge, N.Y. :Barron’s,1993

In the Beginning - Yuchi Southeastern Indian traditions indicated their belief in an Upper World, a Lower World, and This World, where they, the animals and plants, lived and thrived. Early on in This World, some extraordinary humans and animals came down to visit from Upper World. Later, they returned to their previous world, where they felt more comfortable. Mankind of This World in time learned to resolve frictions and to maintain some order between themselves and the other two worlds. They became mostly villagers and agriculturists with more permanent tribal homes, since they were not nomadic by nature. Their tribes enlarged and prospered as hunters, fishermen, builders, and skilled craftsmen, including the women's abilities in weaving, basketry, and herbal medicines; the latter maintaining the good health of their people. In the beginning, water covered everything. Wind asked, "Who will make the land? Who will make the land appear?" Lock-chew, the Crawfish, said, "I will make the land appear." So he went down to the bottom of the water and began to stir up the mud with his tail and his claws. He brought up some mud to a certain place and piled it up until it made a mound. The owners of the land at the bottom of the water said, "Who is disturbing our land?" They kept careful watch and discovered it was Crawfish. When they started toward him, Crawfish stirred up the mud so much with his tail that they could not see him. Lock-chew continued to pile up mud, until it came out on top of the surface of the great water. This is how land first appeared. It was so soft that Wind said, "Who will spread the land to make it dry and hard?" Hawk and Buzzard appeared. Because Buzzard's wings were larger, he tried first. He flew, fanning the soft earth and spreading it all about. When he flapped his wings, hills and valleys were formed. "Who will make the light?" Wind asked. It was very dark. Yo-hah, the Star, said, "I will make light." It was agreed. The Star shone forth, but its light only remained close to the Star. "Who will make more light?" Wind asked. Shar-pah, the Moon, said, "I will make enough light for all my children and I will shine forever." But the world was still too dark. T-cho, the Sun, said, "Leave it to me to make enough light for everyone everywhere." Sun went to the East and suddenly enough light was everywhere. As Sun travelled over the earth, a drop of blood fell from the sky to the ground. From this spot sprang the first people, the children of the Sun they were called, the Yu-chis. The Yu-chis wished to find their medicine since a large monster had destroyed some of their people. The Yu-chis cut off its head, but the next day its head and body were together again. They killed the monster a second time. Again, its head grew back on its body. A third time, they cut off its head. They placed the head on top of a tall tree, so the body could not reach the head. The next morning, the tree was dead and the head had rejoined the monster's body. They killed it once more, putting its head at the top of a cedar tree. The next morning the cedar tree was still alive, but covered with blood from the head. The monster remained dead. This is how the Yu-chis found their great medicine, the Cedar Tree. Fire was soon discovered by boring a stick into some hard, dry weeds. The Yu-chis selected a second medicine, as each one made a picture of the Sun upon their door. In the beginning, all of the animals could talk with one another. All animals and people were at peace. The deer lived in a cave watched over by a Yu-chis keeper. When the Yu-chis became hungry, the keeper selected a deer and killed it for their food. Finally, all of the deer were set free with the other animals, and a name was given to every animal upon the earth. This is how it was in the beginning with the first people, the Yu-chis Indian tribe.

In the Beginning – Cherokee Long ago when all was water, the animals lived above in Galunlati but it was very crowded and they wanted more room. Dayunisi, the little Water-beetle, offered to go see what was below the water. It repeatedly dived to the bottom and came up with soft mud eventually forming the island we call earth. The island was suspended by cords at each of the cardinal points to the sky vault, which is solid rock. Birds were sent down to find a dry place to live but none could be found. The Great Buzzard, the father of all buzzards we see now, flew down close to the earth while it was still soft. He became tired and his wings began to strike the ground. Where they struck the earth became a valley and where they rose up again became a mountain and thus the Cherokee country was created. The animals came down after the earth dried but all was dark so they set the sun in a track to go every day across the island from east to west. At first the sun was too close to the island and too hot. They raised the sun again and again, seven times, until it was the right height just under the sky arch. The highest place, Gulkwagine Digalunlatiyun, is "the seventh height". The animals and plants were told to keep watch for seven nights but as the days passed many begin to fall asleep until on the seventh night only the owl, panther, and a couple of others were still awake. These were given the power to see in the dark and prey on the birds and animals that sleep at night. Of the plants, only the cedar, the pine, the spruce, the holly, and the laurel were awake to the end and were therefore given the power to be always green and to be the greatest medicine, but to the others it was said: "Because you have not endured to the end you shall lose your hair every winter." Men came after animals and plants. At first there was only a brother and sister until he struck her with a fish and told her to multiply. In seven days a child was born to her and thereafter every seven days another until there was danger that the world could not keep up with them. Then it was made that a woman should have only one child in a year, and it has been so ever since.

In the Beginning of the Nisqually World - Pugent Sound Long, long ago, some of the Puget Sound Indians used to say, people on the earth became so numerous that they ate all the fish and game. Then they began to eat each other. Soon they became worse than the wild animals had been. They be- came so very wicked that Dokibati, the Changer, sent a floodupon the earth. All living things were destroyed except one woman and one dog. They fled to the top of Tacobud and stayed there until the flood left the earth. >From the woman and the dog were born the next race of people. They walked on four legs and lived in holes in the ground. They ate fern roots and camas bulbs, which they dug with their fingers because they had no tools. Having no fire and no clothing, they suffered from both the heat and the cold. Their troubles were made worse when a giant bear came up from the south. The bear was huge and strong and also had special powers. With his eyes he cast a spell upon whatever creature he warned to eat. Then that creature was unable to move, and the bear ate him. The people had no weapons. So the bear was about to eat all of them. At last the Changer sent a Spirit Man over the mountains from the east. His face was like the sun. His voice was like the voice of Thunderbird. He came armed with bow, arrows, and spear. And he had great powers. "Why do you weep?" he asked the people. | "We weep because of the bear," they answered. "The beast is about to destroy us. None of us can escape from him." The Spirit Man did not promise to help them, but he did show them how to walk on two feet. And he told them that there were two powerful spirits. "One of them is good; the other is evil. The Good Spirit sent me to you." Then he returned to the mountains to talk with the Good Spirit, the Changer. When the Spirit Man came to the people a second time, he brought many strange gifts and stayed for many moons. . First he called all the people together for a big potlatch, the first potlatch of all the Indians. He told them that a potlatch is a big feast and gift-giving celebration. To the young men, the Spirit Man gave bows, arrows, and spears, and he taught all the young men how to use them. To the old men, he gave canoes. He showed them how to make canoes from cedar trees, how to make fishing spears and nets, and how to fish from the canoes. The Spirit Man taught the girls how to make skins from the inner bark of the cedar tree, how to paint their faces and oil their hair so that they were more beautiful, and how to sing. He showed the older women how to dig camas roots with the sticks he brought them, and how to make baskets out of cedar bark and seaweed. He showed them how to make fire by rubbing two sticks together, how to cook, how to carry burdens by strapping them across the head. "You will serve man and be useful to him in these ways," the Spirit Man told the women. "He will be your master." Then the Spirit Man filled himself with strong powers, for his next task was to kill the giant bear. First he put seven arrows into his bag. He called together the men of the tribe, and for one whole sun the group chanted over the arrows to make them strong with spirit power. Then the Spirit Man took one arrow and pushed it into the ground in the center of the plain west of Tacobud. After walking half a day toward the lodge of the great bear, he pushed a second arrow into the ground. He walked for another half day toward the bear's den and pushed a third arrow into the ground. Thus he kept on until he had placed six arrows erect and in a straight line. With the seventh arrow in his hand, the Spirit Man went up to the bear. The beast tried to cast a spell from his eyes, but the Spirit Man's spirit powers were so strong that the bear could have no effect on him. He shot the seventh arrow into the beast and then ran back to the sixth arrow. The bear followed him. He shot the sixth arrow and then ran back to the fifth. The bear followed him. They kept running until they reached the first arrow. The Spirit Man shot the first arrow into the heart of the beast and killed him. There the great bear died, in the middle of the Nisqually plain. All the people were glad when they gathered together near the dead beast that had frightened them for so long. They removed the skin and divided it equally among the different branches of the tribe. The bear was so huge that the skin of one ear covered the whole of Mound Prairie. The last thing the Spirit Man did for the people on this journey to their land was to make a large building with just one opening. In this big house he placed all the diseases and evil deeds known to the world since then. Then he called a certain family to him and made them guardians of the building. What was in the house he told only to the head of the family. "You and your children and grandchildren will take care of this house forever," the Spirit Man said. "Remember that the door must never be opened. And remember that only the head man of the family is ever to know what is in the building." After many years, the only members of the family left were an old man and his wife and daughter. One day, when her father and mother went away from the house, the daughter saw her chance to peek into the Spirit Man's house. She had long wanted to see what was behind that door. So she undid the fastenings and pushed back the door a little distance. Out rushed all the creatures of the house-alt the diseases and evil deeds and sorrows that have been in the world ever since. The Changer was so angry with the daughter that he created the demon Seatco. Seatco's home is among the rocks in the distant mountains. He sleeps by day. At night he flies over the earth to seize any woman found away from her home. Taken from Indian Legends of the Pacific Northwest, by E. E. dark. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1933.

In the Beginning of the Haida – Haida In the beginning there was nothing but soft darkness, and Raven beat and beat with his wings until the darkness packed itself down into solid earth. Then there was only the icy black ocean and a narrow strip of shoreline. But people came soon to live along the coast. And Raven felt sorry for them, poor, sickly things, who never had any sunshine. They lived by chewing on nuts and leaves, and crushed the roots of the alder trees for something to drink. "I must help them," thought Raven; and he flew down to earth, calling, "Ga, ga, ga!" and gathered the people together. Like ghosts, they were, shadowy and pale in the misty darkness. "Raven has come!" they told each other. "It is Raven-Who-Sets- Things-Right." The poor things were encouraged, and they gathered round to see what he would do. Raven plucked a branch from an alder, and scattered the leaves on the surface of a pool. At once the leaves were sucked under, and the water started to bubble. After the pool had boiled for a moment, the surface cleared and fish began to jump there. So that was how Raven gave the people fish. But now that they had fish to eat, they were thirstier than ever. They called on Raven, and down he came, and the people said, "Here is Raven-Who-Sets-Things-Right." Raven knew that there was only one spring of fresh water in all the world. A man named Ganook had built his house around it, and refused to give any away. "Maybe," thought Raven, "I can drink enough to carry some back to the people." So he went to the house and asked to come in, and Ganook was very glad to have his company. Raven sat down and made polite conversation, and pretty soon he asked for a drink of water. "Very well," said Ganook grudgingly, and showed him the spring, a crystal pool welling up in a basin of rock. "Don't drink it all!" Ganook warned him. "You know that's the only fresh water in all the world." Raven knew it well; that was what he had come for. But he said, "Just a sip!" and drank until he staggered. "Hold on there, Raven!" cried Ganook. "Are you trying to drink the well dry?" That was just what Raven was trying to do, but he passed it off lightly. He made himself comfortable close to the fire and said, "Ganook, let me tell you a story." Then Raven started out on a long dull story about four dull brothers who went on a long dull journey. As he went along he made up dull things to add to it, and Ganook's eyelids drooped, and Raven spoke softly, and more and more slowly, and Ganook's chin dropped on his chest. "So then," said Raven gently, with his eyes on Ganook, "on and on through the long gray valley through the soft gray fog went the four tall gray brothers. And now, snore!" And Ganook began to snore. Quick as a thought, Raven darted to the spring and stuck his beak into the water. But no sooner had he lifted his head to swallow than Ganook started up with a terrible snort, and said, "Go on, go on, I'm listening! I'm not asleep." Then he shook his head and blinked his eyes and said, "Where are you, Raven? What are you doing?" "Just walking around for exercise," Raven assured him, and back he went, and in a low, unchanging voice he went on with the dull story of the four brothers. No sooner had he started than Ganook began to nod, and his chin dropped down, and he jerked it back and opened his eyes and scowled at Raven, and nodded his head and said, "Go on! What next?" and his head dropped down upon his chest. "So on and on," said Raven slowly, "over the hills, went the four tall gray brothers. The air was thick and gray around them. Fog was stealing softly over the mountains. Fog before them, fog behind them, soft, cloudy fog. And now, snore!" And Ganook began to snore. Quietly Raven slipped to the spring, and, glub, glub, glub, he drank up the water until the pool was dry. But as he lifted his head for a last long gulp, Ganook leaped up and saw what he was doing. "So, Raven!" shouted Ganook. "You think you can lull me to sleep and steal my water!" He picked up his club and started to chase Raven round and round the fire. Raven would run a few steps and flap his big wings and rise a few inches off the floor. Then with a last tremendous flap he went sailing towards the open smoke hole. But he had swallowed so much water that he stuck fast in the opening, and there he struggled, while Ganook shouted, "You squint-eyed Raven, I've got you now, Raven! You miserable thief!" And Ganook threw green alder logs on the fire and made a great smoke which came billowing up and almost choked Raven to death. Raven hung there, strangling and struggling, until at last he pulled free with a mighty wrench and went wobbling heavily across the sky. He was so heavy he flew in a crooked line, and as he flew he spurted little streams of water from his bill. These became rivers, first the Nass and the Sitka, then the Taku and the Iskut and the Stikine. Since Raven flew in a crooked line, all the rivers are crooked as snakes. Here and there he scattered single drops, and these became narrow creeks and salmon pools. And so Raven brought fresh water to the people but he bore the mark of that smoke hole ever after. He had gone to Ganook as a great, white, snowy creature, but from that day on, Raven was black, as black as the endless sky of the endless night.

In Rabbit's House – Yaqui RABBIT had a house. Into this house crawled a snake. He stayed there, waiting for the owner to return so he could eat him. When the rabbit came home, he saw the track of the snake going into his house. So, to deceive whoever was inside, he spoke to his house, saying, "Good morning, my house." There was no answer. A second time he greeted the house and there was no reply. When there was no answer the third time, the rabbit said, "Oh, my house, why do you not answer me? Is something the matter?" And again he said, "Good morning, house." "Good morning, my patron," replied the snake from within. Then the rabbit said, "What! Whoever heard of a house speaking? It is clear that some enemy is inside." And he went away and built himself a new house. LC This incident is recorded in stories collected in New Mexico, Mexico, and Chile. Yaqui Myths and Legends, by Ruth Warner Giddings; Illustrated by Laurie Cook; University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ (Univ. Ariz. Anthropological Paper No. 2) [1959] [1959, Copyright not registered or renewed] and is now in the public domain.