<A HREF="http://www.oz.net/~grid/native/index.html">Click here: Native History is American History</A> http://www.oz.net/~grid/native/index.html Bright Star

<A HREF="http://home.flash.net/~park29/means_1.htm">Click here: A Conversation with Russell Means, Page 1</A> http://home.flash.net/~park29/means_1.htm Now is not the time to split the party ticket. It has to be Democrat all the way, or Bush WILL WIN !!! Bright Star registered republican for 25 years

Source: KOLA We have just read and signed the online petition: "Stop Exploitation of Traditional Native Religion by new agers and charlatains!" hosted on the web by PetitionOnline.com, the free online petition service, at: http://www.petitiononline.com/snar/petition.html We fully agree with what this petition says, and we think you might agree, too. If you can spare a moment, please take a look, and consider signing yourself. Best wishes, Elsie Herten

Sat, 8 Jul 2000 http://www.msnbc.com/local/WJAR/350912.asp Narragansett tribe's right to land upheld CHARLESTOWN (AP) - A federal judge has upheld a 1998 decision by the federal Bureau of Indian Affairs to take 32 acres of land in Charlestown into trust for the Narragansett Indian tribe, despite protests from the state that the land might be used for a casino. The legal victory for the tribe comes after it failed to persuade the General Assembly to put a casino referendum on the November ballot. Trust status means state and local laws do not apply to the land, although most federal laws do, The Providence Journal reported. Fearing that the tribe will develop a casino on the trust land, even though it has already started to build housing on the site, Gov. Lincoln Almond opposed the Bureau of Indian Affairs' decision. In court papers, the state noted that the tribe's housing project has numerous problems and there is a "distinct possibility" the Narragansett Indians would try to use the land for a casino. The state also argued that the 1978 Settlement Act, which gave the Narragansetts 1,800 acres in Charlestown, was meant to resolve all land claims, said Joseph S. Larisa Jr., Almond's legal counsel. As part of the establishment of the Charlestown reservation, the tribe agreed to permit state civil and criminal laws to prevail on the reservation. The tribe won federal recognition in 1983 and four years later transferred the 1,800 acres into federal trust. But the trust reiterated that Rhode Island civil and criminal laws still applied to the land. Judge Kathryn A. Lynn of the Interior Board of Indian Appeals, a Virginia-based board under the U.S. Department of the Interior, rejected every argument the state raised in a 14-page decision issued last Thursday. There is nothing in the Settlement Act that indicates the tribe was to be prohibited from buying land outside its settlement area and have it taken into trust for them by the federal government, Lynn wrote. Lynn also wrote there is nothing that indicates the tribe intends to use the land for anything but housing. The tribe has said that despite problems with its $4.1-million housing development on the land, it remains committed to finishing it. But the Narragansetts have also refused to place a provision in the deed for the land that it would only be used for housing, Larisa said. The state plans to appeal Lynn's decision in federal court, Larisa said.

Source: KOLA Democrats, Indians denounce GOP plan seeking to ban tribal governments MICHELLE DeARMOND, Associated Press Writer Saturday, July 8, 2000 (07-08) 17:25 PDT LOS ANGELES (AP) -- Outraged by a GOP effort in Washington state to abolish tribal governments and a threat by one party member to use military force against Indians, California Democrats and Indians on Saturday passed a resolution denouncing that state party's actions. The move to abolish tribal governments passed quietly last month in the form of a resolution at a Washington state Republican Party convention and attracted little attention until just days ago when news of it slowly spread through Washington media and an Indian news Web site. The resolution calls on the federal government to terminate tribal governments as unconstitutional because reservation residents who are non-Indian can't vote in tribal elections. Tribal governments are self-governing sovereign entities with a goverment-to-goverment relationship with the U.S. government. The California Democratic Party Native American Caucus passed its own resolution Friday denouncing the Washington state GOP's resolution, and the general assembly meeting Saturday in Los Angeles approved it. It was co-authored by Chairman Art Torres and Frank LaMere, a vice chair of the Nebraska Democratic Party and member of the Winnebago tribe there. ``It is an outrage. I call upon the Republican National Committee to publicly repudiate the wayward and blatantly racist actions of the Washington Republican party,'' LaMere said. ``It is divisive to even speak of turning our military against our own. That's what they have done in Washington and they need to be ashamed,'' said LaMere, who lost a brother in the Vietnam War. LaMere and California tribal leaders are trying to generate support from other politicians across the country in denouncing the Washington state GOP resolution. A Republican National Committee spokesperson did not immediately have a reaction Saturday, but Democrats and Republicans alike have said they doubt the Washington resolution would make it into the national GOP platform. The resolution's main author has said he wants party delegates to try to insert a similar measure into the national GOP platform and threatened to use the U.S. military to battle any tribes who would fight an abolition of their governments. Washington GOP officials have been unable to explain how they intended to carry out the resolution, and calls left for officials Saturday were not immediately returned. The main author of the resolution, John Fleming, has been unavailable for further comment. He did not immediately return a phone call Saturday. Fleming lives within the Swinomish Reservation in Washington, but is a non-Indian, and is active in organizations opposing treaty rights. The resolution comes amid growing controversy there over reservation rules affecting non-Indians, ranging from hunting privileges to liquor sales. Despite skepticism that Fleming's resolution has much likelihood of getting national support, California Indians don't want to leave anything to chance. They already are calling on politicians and writing letters about the resolution. ``I couldn't believe it that in the year 2000 that this type of racist attitude was able to get the support,'' said Mary Ann Andreas, Morongo tribal chairwoman. ``I would be horrified to find out that these people knew'' what they were doing. Beth Jensen, chairwoman of the Washington state GOP platform committee, has said the Fleming resolution was barely discussed and admitted she was unfamiliar with the issue. The committee considered 29 resolutions in two hours, and there wasn't time to discuss them, she has said. LaMere scoffed at suggestions ignorance might explain the party's actions. ``Involvement in the political process and in all those processes that govern our lives requires commitment and total attention. If they can't do the job right, they should not embark upon the endeavor at all,'' he said. ``There was reckless disregard. They can't hide from that fact.'' === [source: NativeNews; Sun, 09 Jul 2000 12:28:13 -0400] GOP Politicians Break With Platform on Tribes http://www.yakima-herald.com/cgi-bin/liveique.acgi$rec=13745?home Published in the Herald-Republic on Sunday, July 9, 2000 By MIKE BARENTI YAKIMA HERALD-REPUBLIC From state representatives to U.S. Sen. Slade Gorton, there's little support from local Republican politicians for a state GOP resolution calling for the abolition of tribal governments. "He absolutely disagrees that we should do away with tribal governments," Gorton spokeswoman Cynthia Bergman said of a platform resolution passed with little attention during the GOP's state convention in Spokane last month. Tribes have the right to govern their own members, but Gorton doesn't think tribes can govern nontribal members living on reservations, she said. Other Republicans share Gorton's opposition to the resolution. "I don't support it," said state Rep. Barbara Lisk, R-Zillah. It's important that the United States honor its obligations, including treaties with American Indian tribes, she said. Like many, Lisk said she wasn't aware of the portion of the platform calling for an end to tribal governments until she read about it in press reports. And Lisk said she isn't sure how that made it into the state party's platform. The resolution's main author was John Fleming, a delegate to the state convention from Skagit County, who uses the term "nonrepublican" to describe tribal governments. The resolution calls on the federal government to "immediately take whatever steps necessary to terminate all such nonrepublican forms of government on Indian reservations." There's always been controversy over treaty interpretation, but it doesn't mean tribal governments need to be abolished, said state Rep. Bruce Chandler, R-Granger. "The issues we're facing right now can be resolved within the confines of the treaty," Chandler said. "We are a government of laws," said U.S. Rep. Doc Hastings. The possibility of a court fight between the Yakama Nation and the state over the tribe's plan to ban alcohol on the reservation probably will help clarify what authority tribal government has over nontribal members, he said. Passed in March, the ban takes effect on Sept. 17. The Yakamas say it applies to private lands owned by nontribal members. The courts are there to clarify what are legitimate gray areas of tribal authority, Hastings said. "We obviously have to respect tribal rights and treaty rights," Hastings said. It's comments like those that make the resolution almost a nonissue for Yakama Nation leaders. On a scale of one to 10, with one being most important and 10 least important, the resolution is about a 141Ú2 for Yakama leaders, said Jerry Meninick, vice chairman of the Yakama Nation Tribal Council. "I think the Yakama Nation would be alarmed if that was the voice of the United States," Meninick said. Instead, the resolution represents the view of a small group of people that don't have the authority to abolish tribal governments, he said. "What would the reaction be if we attempted to abolish the enabling act of Washington state?" asked Meninick, who called the resolution simply an attempt to play to the interest of groups in conflict with Indian tribes. While Republican politicians distanced themselves from the resolution, at least one group in the Lower Valley is embracing it. The STAND-UP Committee, which opposes the Yakama Nation's alcohol ban, and also its attempt to form an electric utility and the possibility tribal control of two Columbia River dams, wants all political parties to include similar language in their platforms, said Elaine Willman, who has helped organize STAND-UP. The group is nonpartisan, she said. "We do support the concept of one nation under God," Willman said. Programs to help Indians are fine, she said. "Where it goes awry is where there's a special population whose benefits come at the direct harm of another population." That's the case with Indian tribes, she said. STAND-Up plans to lobby Congress and local politicians on the matter. Tribes should become private organizations similar to a nonprofit agency, Willman said. Washington isn't the only state where groups are calling for an end to tribal governments, said Deward Walker, an anthropology professor at the University of Colorado in Boulder who studies Indian issues, including some involving the Yakama Nation. "They're all over the West," he said. While Congress has the power to abolish tribal governments and eliminate reservations, that's not something most people support, Walker said. Federal support for tribal self-government has waxed and waned over the years, Walker said. In 1934, Congress passed a law helping set up tribal governments. But in the late 1940s and early 1950s policy shifted into what's sometimes called the termination era, he said. Reservations, such as southern Oregon's Klamath, were done away with and Congress passed the Indian Relocation Act, which encouraged Indians to leave reservations and move to cities. When John F. Kennedy became president, federal policy became friendlier to Indians, Walker said. Policy shifted again under the Reagan administration, he said. "It goes in cycles," Walker said. But there's always some opposition to tribal governments in certain areas. "Some people have the idea that Indians will go away -- they'll become interesting museum pieces," he said.

Hi List, I thought you'd be interested in this~ Turtle ~ International Day of World's Indigenous Peoples FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE Sponsored by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, in cooperation with the United Childrenís Fund, the Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict, the International Labour Organization, the United Nations Fund for Population Activities, the Department of Public Information and the NGO Committee on the International Decade of the Worldís Indigenous People. 6th Annual Commemoration of the INTERNATIONAL DAY OF THE WORLD'S INDIGENOUS PEOPLES Wednesday, August 9 and Thursday, August 10, 2000 at United Nations Hqrs Free and Open to the Public (Registration required for 8/9 dialogue & 8/10 workshop) Contact: UN OHCHR Tel: 212-963-5931, Fax:212-963-4097 before July 20 AUGUST 9 11 am United Nations Press Conference (Covering media must submit request for U.N. access on letterhead to U.N. Accreditation Office (fax: (212) 963-4642) call 963-5934 / 7164 to verify receipt of fax, once request is verified, pass must be obtained at 45th & 1st Avenue, UNITAR building, Pass & Identification Unit (two forms of photo ID required)). 11:30 am - 1 pm Opening Ceremony At UN Visitorsí Entrance Plaza (free access) - First Avenue at 45th Street, Manhattan The commemoration will commence at 11:30 am with a traditional drum welcome and with opening statements read on behalf of Secretary-General Kofi Annan and Mrs. Mary Robinson, High Commissioner for Human Rights. At noon, a traditional Sacred Pipe Ceremony will be carried out by Dr. Arvol Looking Horse (Lakota), followed by the welcome of the Spirit Run and a ceremonial blessing for children by Elder Eufemeia Cholac Chicol (Maya) from Guatemala, followed by various other ceremonial and musical presentations until 1 pm. 3:00 pm - 6:00 pm Dialogue A dialogue will be held in Conference Room 1 (basement level, United Nations General Assembly Building). Indigenous and United Nations panelists will make short statements initiating a dialogue under the theme of "Indigenous Children and Youth". This theme has been selected by the UN Working Group on Indigenous Populations to be this year's focus. SPEAKERS: Mr. Olara Otunnu, Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Children and Armed Conflicts Mr. Evans Dwayne Eagle Child, Kainaiwa Nation from Canada A Guatemalan youth (to be confirmed) A representative from UNICEF AUGUST 10 10 am - 1 pm & 3 pm - 6 pm - The day will be a consultation on the preparations for the 2001 World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, aiming at the formulation of suggestions on issues of concern to Indigenous peoples within the context of the draft agenda of the World Conference. PLENARY CHAIR: Ms. Esmeralda Brown, Chair, NGO Committee on International Decade of Worldís Indigenous Peoples SPEAKERS: Mr. Bacre W. Ndiaye, Director, NY Office, Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. Mr. Alberto Saldamando, International Indian Treaty Council FACILITATORS: Ms. Tonya Gonella Frishner, American Indian Law Alliance Mr. Alberto Saldamando, International Indian Treaty Council Mr. Wilton Littlechild from Canada A representative of ILO BACKGROUND August 9, the International Day of the Worldís Indigenous People, was approved in 1994 by the UN General Assembly to be observed annually. It is the anniversary of the first meeting of the UN Working Group on Indigenous Populations which took place in 1982. Its commemoration is celebrated in Geneva and worldwide. In New York City, it has become a two-day event at United Nations Headquarters. Besides the World Sacred Pipe Ceremony for Peace, the panel discussion will focus on "Indigenous Children and Youth" theme for the current year of the International Decade of the Worldís Indigenous People (1995-2004). Past yearsí themes were "Land and Natural Resources", "Health", "Education and Language", "Relationship to the land"... CONTACT: United Nations Dept of Public Information: Ellen McGuffie Tel: 212-963-0499 - or Marie Samuel, Yachay Wasi (NGO/DPI), NGO Committee on the United Nations International Decade of the Worldís Indigenous Peoples - Tel: 212-567-6447, 212-460-2054 FAX: 212-477-5574 e-mail: [email protected]

Hi List, The latest news in Indian Country............... check it out. <http://www.apbnews.com:80/newscenter/breakingnews/2000/07/09/indians0709_01 .html?s=nav_bn_homepage> Incarcerations Rise in Indian Country Federal Study Shows Increase of 8 Percent July 9, 2000 By James Gordon Meek

Come visit BLACK DUTCH AMERICA website to read the latest family news! The following items that were added on Monday, July 10: -- NEWS -- ---------------------------------------- GRANNYS-NA-PANTRY was added by Patricia Hernandez. ---------------------------------------- NEW LISTS ON ROOTSWEB.COM was added by Patricia Hernandez. ----------------------------------------

Date: Tue, 11 Jul 2000 12:41:13 -0700 From: Brendan White <[email protected]> Subject: American Indian Opinion--Survey #8/#9 ----------PLEASE RESPOND BY 12 NOON, MONDAY, JULY 17, 2000---------- July 11, 2000 Dear American Indian Opinion Leader, I would like to thank you for your opinions and ask that you continue your participation by completing the following two surveys. Please check your answers, and provide written comments when possible along with your name and tribal affiliation, by 12 NOON MONDAY, JULY 17, 2000. Survey #8 President Clinton: What effect on Indian Country? President Clinton is entering his final months as president of the United States. Some have already begun to assess the effectiveness of is American Indian policies during his two terms in office. What do you think? Question #1: How would you rate President Clinton's effectiveness on ndian-related issues? [ ] Very effective for Indians [ ] Maintain status quo [ ] Harmful to Indian concerns Question #2: Which of the following issues do you feel President Clinton was most effective in endorsing on behalf of American Indians? (Check all the apply) [ ] Educational opportunities [ ] Economic opportunities [ ] Indian sovereignty (government to government relations) [ ] Extending communications in Indian country (telephone, internet, etc..) [ ] Health care [ ] Protecting Indian land and resources [ ] Budget support from federal departments and agencies [ ] Other (please write in along with name and tribal affiliation): Comments (please write in along with name and tribal affiliation): -------------------------------------------------------- Survey #9 Indian Gaming: Good or Bad for Reservations and Local Communities? American Indian casino gaming has been scrutinized for its impacts -- positive and negative -- on Indian nations and communities as well as on surrounding local non-Native communities. We would like your opinion on whether or not Indian casinos are a good idea. What do you think? Question #1: Does your tribe operate a casino? [ ] Yes [ ] No Question #2: Do you think that Indian gaming has benefited or hurt American Indian nations? [ ] Benefited nations [ ] Hurt nations [ ] Not sure Question #3: Do you think that casinos have benefited or hurt surrounding non-Native communities? [ ] Benefited surrounding communities [ ] Hurt surrounding communities [ ] Not sure Comments (please write in along with name and tribal affiliation): Please submit your responses to [email protected] by 12 NOON MONDAY, JULY 17, 2000. Sincerely, Brendan White Assistant Editor American Indian Opinion Tim Johnson Publisher and Executive Editor Indian Country Today 306 Diamond Street Canastota, NY 13032 Tel: (315) 697-7777 Fax: (315) 697-9099 http://www.indiancountry.com

there was a formula posted - can't remember what i did with we are all of the human race just different cultures Connie in houston

In a message dated 7/11/00 12:26:49 PM Eastern Daylight Time, Tsalagi02 writes: << Bright Star my post wasn't sent out as an attachment, for some reason when Rootsweb intercepted my post they transformed my post into an attachment, Maybe because it was so long? not sure......... blessings Turtle/ >> Probably, because it was in text form. LOL Bright Star

Today's featured map is: WESTERN ENGLAND, 1685-88 To view this map, go to: http://www.ancestry.com/search/rectype/reference/maps/freeimages.asp?ImageID=3 80

From Ancestry Daily News, 11 July 2000 "Ancestry.com is taking online genealogy to a new level by launching Images Online. Of great value to family historians and genealogists, the online images provide extensive detail that is only available by viewing the source document. Original American Civil War pension index cards will be the first available images, and following soon will be top-quality images of U.S. censuses, 1790-1920." Bright Star

============================================================ HOUSTON, TEXAS DIRECTORIES, 1890 Located near the port of Galveston in southeastern Texas, the city of Houston is the county seat of Harris County. Harris County was known as Harrisburg County until 1840. This database is a transcription of city directories originally published in 1882, 1884, 1886, 1887, 1889, 1890, 1892, and 1894. In addition to providing the residents' names, it provides their addresses and occupational information. It includes more than 101,000 names, mostly heads of households. For the researcher of ancestors from southeastern Texas, this can be an extremely valuable collection. Source Information: "Houston Directory, 1882-83." Houston, TX: Morrison & Fourmy, 1882. "Houston Directory, 1884-85." Houston, TX: Morrison & Fourmy, 1884. "Houston Directory, 1886-87." Houston, TX: Morrison & Fourmy, 1886. "Houston Directory, 1887-88." Houston, TX: Morrison & Fourmy, 1887. "Houston Directory, 1889-90." Houston, TX: Morrison & Fourmy, 1889. "Houston Directory, 1890-91." Houston, TX: Morrison & Fourmy, 1890. "Houston Directory, 1892-93." Houston, TX: Morrison & Fourmy, 1892. "Houston Directory, 1894-95." Houston, TX: Morrison & Fourmy, 1894. To search this database, go to: http://www.ancestry.com/search/rectype/inddbs/4761.htm This database is also included in the 1890 Census Reconstruction Project and can be searched through its main page at: http://www.ancestry.com/search/rectype/census/1890sub/main.htm ________________________________________________________________ NEBRASKA RESIDENT MILITARY ROSTER ON JUNE 1, 1891 This database is comprised of the rosters of soldiers, sailors, and marines of the War of 1812, the Mexican War, and the War of the Rebellion who resided in Nebraska on June 1, 1891. Source Information: Patricia Sewell, comp. "Nebraska resident military roster on June 1, 1891." [database online] Provo, UT: Ancestry.com, 2000. Electronic reproduction of the following book: "Roster of Soldiers, Sailors, and Marines of the War of 1812, the Mexican War, and the War of the Rebellion, residing in Nebraska June 1, 1891." Lincoln, Nebraska: John C. Allen, Secretary of State, 1892. To search this database, go to: http://www.ancestry.com/search/rectype/inddbs/4755.htm ________________________________________________________________ MORRIS COUNTY, NEW JERSEY CEMETERY INSCRIPTIONS Morris County, located in northern New Jersey, was formed in 1739 and was originally part of Hunterdon County. This database is a collection of cemetery inscription records from graveyards in Whippany and Hanover up to 1894. Each record provides the decedent's name, death date, age, relatives of the deceased, and a comments section. Other persons listed on the stone are also listed in the database, along with any relationship details. The database contains the names of more than two thousand persons. For researchers seeking ancestors from northern New Jersey, it can provide important information. Source Information: Ancestry.com. "Morris County, New Jersey Cemetery Inscriptions." [database online] Provo, UT: Ancestry.com, 2000. Original data: William O. Wheeler. "Inscriptions on the Tomb Stones and Monuments in the Grave Yards at Whippany and Hanover, Morris County, N. J., 1894." NJ: W.O. Wheeler, 1894. To search this database, go to: http://www.ancestry.com/search/rectype/inddbs/4763.htm ________________________________________________________________ TUCSON CITIZEN (AZ), OBITUARIES, 1994-99 Source Information: Bell and Howell Information and Learning Company. "Tucson Citizen (Arizona), Obituaries, 1994-99." [database online] Provo, UT: Ancestry.com, 2000. Original electronic data is from the electronic newspaper newsfeed service of the Bell and Howell Information and Learning Company. To search this database, go to: http://www.ancestry.com/search/rectype/inddbs/3518.htm

RootsWeb and MyFamily.com Merge Details of this exciting merger are available at the following sites. http://www.rootsweb.com/rootsweb/merge.html http://www.ancestry.com/home/celebrate/rootsrelease.htm Should you have any further questions, please feel free to contact our HelpDesk at: http://helpdesk.rootsweb.com/help.cgi

Hi List, This is what I was trying to post, but it went semi download / attachment hehehe Enjoy! Just double-click onto the link or copy/paste the website below the link. <A HREF="http://dogwoodpress.myriad.net/dcm/redbone.html">Louisiana Redbones</ A> http://dogwoodpress.myriad.net/dcm/redbone.html

Redbones and Melungeons The Mixed Peoples The Redbones are one of a group of people of unknow mixed ancestry who lived in the Southeastern United States. The best known and researched of these groups are the Melungeons who lived in western Virginia and eastern Tennessee. Other similar groups include the Brass Ankles and Turks of South Carolina, the Brown People of Kentucky, the Carmel Indians of Ohio, and Guineas of West Virginia. The Redbones, sometimes called the "Louisiana Melungeions," originated in South Carolina and established the Redbone identity in Southwest Louisiana. A recent book entitled "The Farfarers" by Farley Mowatt tells of a present-day people in Newfoundland called Jakatars having a history reminiscent of the Melungeons and Redbones of the Southeast United States. Mowatt cites interesting but controversial archaelogical and historical records that indicate that a people he calls Albans traveled as far a Newfoundland before the Vikings. They originally settled Scotland before the Celts arrived and drove them out. The Vikings then drove them west to Iceland, Greenland and then mainland North America. He says they were small, dark-skinned, dark-haired people who were much in appearance like the present day Kurds or Basques. He thinks that the Jakatars, who were discovered by the British when they arrived in Newfoundland, are their descendants. He speculates that the term "Jakatars" derives from a Basque word "Jakue" meaning "God" and "tar" meaining "related to". So he thinks it was a way of describing early Christians in North America. "Melungeons" The origins and racial makeup of the Melungeons and their Louisiana equivalent "Redbones" is very controversial. They are copper-skinned, dark-eyed, dark-haired, but they have English names and were speaking English at the time they were first encountered by European settlers in the Carolinas and Virginia. Some claim that the Melungeons are tri-racial, but the Melungeons themselves have always claimed to be "Portygee," that is, Portuguese. Dr. Brent Kennedy, the leading Melungeon researcher, believes that the Melungeons are a mix of remnants of the Eastern Indian tribes that were devastated by European diseases and forced westward by European settlement, remnants of a pre-Jamestown Spanish colony in South Carolina, and Portuguese / Turkish peoples who were rescued from slavery in South America and put ashore on Roanoke Island by Francis Drake in the late 1500's. The tri-racial characterization grows out of two factors. First, Melungeons (and Indians) married both Europeans and Africans in the modern era. Indeed many, if not most, African Americans have Native American branches in their family trees. The same is true for a large percentage of white Southerners, many of whom claim to have "Cherokee" ancestors or who claim to be "black Irish" or "black Dutch," all of which are likely to be euphemisms for part Indian ancestry that at one time was considered shameful. The second factor was the hardening of racial attitudes in the South in the 1830's due to the rise of the abolition movement. Southern states passed racial purity laws that required classification to gain full rights of citizenship, and the Census Bureau also attempted racial classification. The only problem was what to do with Indians and peculiar groups such as Melungeons which did not fit into any group. The solution was to classify them them as "free people of color, or FPC," the same as freed slaves. They were also termed "mulatto" and "colored". There are instances in the census records in which entire Indian tribes were classified as "Negro". The confusion of Indians with Africans did not occur only in the South. It happended in New England as well. The New England Indians web pages explains that Northeastern Indians did not disappear despite being declared extinct: "This is the story of a conquered people, told by those who conquered them. It has a definite beginning, but the ending is yet to be written. Just before the Civil War, the powers-that-be decided to write that ending, simply by declaring the Indians dead. That worked surprisingly well, and many people even today still believe that to be true. Some of the lighter skinned Indians began to pass as whites, and the darker skinned were called "colored" or Negro in the records." The web page Browns in Rhode Island tells of persons of confused racial heritage and quotes the Supreme Court of Massachusetts as follows: ""Indians had been often designated as Black, Negro, colored since long before the Revolution". We must therefore be careful not to assume that the modern meanings of terms such as "mulatto" and "free persons of color" have the same meanings as when they were recorded. Before the Civil War there were essential two racial classfications, "white" and everyone else. The latter were termed "colored," which included persons of African ancestry but was not limited to them. It is interesting to note that even the term "negro" merely means black and in the Middle Ages was used to refer to a whole range of colors from copper to dark black. Earlier, Indians had had the same rights as Europeans, and Europeans who wanted to take their land found that they could do so by simply reclassifying them racially. They simply asserted that the Indians had African blood, a group that had no comparable rights. The Indians could never rebut the charge due to a lack of records, and the Europeans could in fact point to some Indian-African marriages for support. Melungeons, Lumbees, and Redbones were treated similarly, and they kept moving to the frontier to escape persecution. Early English settlers freely married Powhatan, Pamunkey, Nansemond and other Indians. Indeed the most famous English/Powhatan marriage was that of Princess Pocahontas and John Rolfe. Through their marriage the early aristocrats of Virginia were part Indian, and those genes have been passed along to Americans such as former President George Bush. None of this is conclusive whether the Melungeons had some African ancestry. It is indeed possible that they do, but Dr. Kennedy believes that it is not a modern phenomenon. After some of the Melungeons "went white" by marrying whites and others "went black" by marrying African-Americans, there has not been any significant mixing beyond what would normally happen in any modern population. Genetic studies of some Melungeons commissioned by Dr. Kennedy bear this out and show a similarity to residents of Portugal and no similarity to residents of Africa. The "Redbones" of Louisiana It it difficult to even define the Redbones. In some areas of Louisiana, some say the term refers to those of African ancestry. However, the following is what is written at the Louisiana Folklife Center web page: Farther south around Beauregard Parish, a group emerged in the mid nineteenth century when a Native American community absorbed British American settlers and other populations. These people became known as Redbones, from the West Indian term red ibo which meant any racial mixture (Kniffen, Gregory & Stokes 1987). The apparent generic nature of the term "Redbones" may explain the confusion about whether they were of primarily a white or black group. A similar fate has befalled the word "mulatto", which was originally generic but now is used almost exclusively to refer to mixed races containing some African blood.

"It is a rough road that leads to the heights of greatness." --Seneca "If one asks for success and prepares for failure, he will get the situation he has prepared for." --Florence Shinn "Life is the sum of all your choices." --Albert Camus

In a message dated 7/11/0 3:10:49 AM, [email protected] wrote: << This was sent to me from Turtle. Roosweb does not send attachments. If you want a copy please contact Turtle or Bright Star, and it will be sent to you directly. Bright Star >> Bright Star my post wasn't sent out as an attachment, for some reason when Rootsweb intercepted my post they transformed my post into an attachment, Maybe because it was so long? not sure......... blessings Turtle/

Here's my site pick of the week: Visit Oklahoma's main web site at: http://www.rootsweb.com/~okgenweb/