Unsprung wrote: > Why, have you actually seen a case of someone who whose census record > suggests that they can write but not read? Or are you speaking > hypothetically? > I couldn't find the instructions for the 1880 Federal Census regarding the columns (the , but in the 1890, this is what the enumerators were told (the 1880 instructions were probably similar): "Inquiries number 19 and 20 relate to illiteracy, and are to be made only of or concerning persons 10 years of age or over. 19. Able to read.—Write "Yes" or "No," as the case may be. 20. Able to write.—Write "Yes" or "No," as the case may be. A person may not be able to read or write the English language, and yet may be able to read or write (or both) their native language, as French, Spanish Italian, etc. If in such cases a person can read or write (or both) some language, the answer to Inquiry 19 and Inquiry 20 should be "Yes," according to the fact. If not able to so read or write the answer should be "No." For all persons under 10 years of age use the symbol "X." http://usa.ipums.org/usa/voliii/inst1890.shtml There were also columns for can not read and can not write in the 1870 Federal Census, and they were only to checked if the answer was 'yes'. The instructions for the 1870 then go on to explain: "Education.—It will not do to assume that, because a person can read, he can, therefore, write. The inquiries contained in columns 16 and 17 must be made separately. Very many persons who will claim to be able to read, though they really do so in the most defective manner, will frankly admit that they can not write. These inquiries will not be asked of children under 10 years of age. In regard to all persons above that age, children or adults, male and female, the information will be obtained. At school.—It is not intended to include those whose education has been limited to Sunday or evening schools." http://usa.ipums.org/usa/voliii/inst1870.shtml Cathy